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4^n 

THE ISIZTJLU: 



A REVISED EDITION 



OF A 



Grammar of tlie Zulu Language; 



AVITH 



AN INTRODUCTION AND AN APPENDIX. 



By 

Rev. lewis GROUT, 

Late Missionaiy of the American Board among the Zulus ; Author of ■■' Zulu-Laud ; 
and a Corresponding Member of the American Oriental Society. 




^§7 9 J 



BOSTON : 

AMERICAN BOARD COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS. 

1893. 

LOXDOX: KEG AN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LTD. 



^ ^2"^^ 
^^ll 

'l*''^ 



Copyright, 1893, 

by 

The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. 



Press of Tuttle. Morehouse & Taylor, 
New Haven, Conn., U. S. A. 



In the hitherto unexplored crypts and recesses of different languages, 
lie entombed the memorials of the world's slow marches and solemn 
changes ; and, as the philologist has the high office of interpreting the 
voice of God, in the Holy Scriptures, to the world, so is it his grand 
function to interpret man to himself, and to unroll at his feet the scroll 
of the past as it has actually been rolled up together in the gradual 
development of human life and action. — New Englaiider, Aug., 1858. 



EXTRACTS 

FROM THE PREFACE OF THE FIRST EDITION. 



About to leave New England for Natal, in 1846, I tried in 
Tarious ways and places to find something on the language of the 
people — the Amazulu — among whom I was hoping soon to labor. 
A few Kafir words, from the writings of travelers, in defective or- 
thography, and a few remarks and examples in Kay's Researches, 
comprised the result of my efforts. Arriving here, I renewed my 
search, and found a brief grammatical outline prepared by Dr. 
Adams, amounting to some three or four dozen pages in manu- 
script ; which, with Boyce's Grammar of the Kafir Language, 
was all that could be found, at that time, in Natal. And yet, 
not all ; for here were older missionaries, ready to answer many 
practical questions ; and here, too, were the natives themselves, 
by hundreds and thousands, all expert in the use of their own 
tongue. To these I at once applied myself ; and, from that 
time to the present, both as a source of pleasure, and from a 
sense of dut}^, I have made the study of language, and especially 
the language of this people, a part of my pursuit. 

Nor was I disappointed in finding my way beset with many 
difiiculties. Without an interpreter ; without anything that 
could be called a grammar of the language ; with only a small 
vocabulary, written in a singular, insufiicient, inappropriate 
alphabet ; and among a people alike ignorant and destitute, not 
only of a grammar, but also of all those terms — nouns and verbs, 
number and person, mode and tense, roots and formatives, vow- 
els and consonants — of which the student and author of grammar 
needs to make most frequent use ; moreover, without a page, 
without a single sentence, of genuine vernacular composition, 
with which to commence the study of their own tongue in its 
purity, — it was evident, from the first, that an attempt to analyze 
their language, and reduce its elements and forms to a complete 
system, would require much time, and hard, patient study. Nor 
yet was it less evident that such an attempt must be made. If 
the heathen tribes dwelling in the district of Natal, Emanipon- 
dioeni, Kica Zulu, and in regions beyond, were to be taught to 
read, and have the Scriptures in their own tongue, — the first of 
steps, as well towards a useful, worthy, enduring civilization, as 
towards an intelligent, living Christianity, — then their teachers 
must know their language, both how to speak it with ease and 
fluency, and how to write it with readiness and accuracy. 

A good grammar and dictionary of a language are among the 
things of first importance to a Mission among heathen tribes. 
But wars and changes, and the generally unsettled state of the 



VI PREFACE. 

country, gave neither encouragement nor opportunity to under- 
take the attainment of these things, during the first ten years of 
missionary Avork in this part of Africa. At length, peace and 
order being enjoyed, our Mission also being enlarged and more 
established, at a meeting held by the same, December, 1849, it 
was resolved that the writer and Rev. J. C. Bryant, in connection 
with the Rev. Mr. Posselt of the Berlin Mission, be a committee 
to prepare a Zulu Grammar for the press. I regret to say, how- 
ever, that I was not able to avail myself of the valuable assist- 
ance which these devoted Zulu scholars were admirably qualified 
to render. Mr. Bryant was soon called away by death ; and Mr. 
Posselt, who was then laboring "at the Drakenberg," on the 
extreme border of the Colony, wished the author to go on with 
the work without him. 

Accordingly, about the middle of 1853, our Mission requested 
the writer alone "to prepare a grammar of the native language ;" 
and not long after, a similar request was made by a Commission 
of the local government, of which I had the honor to be a mem- 
ber. The Zulu Grammar, now offered to the public, is the result 
of these appointments. The work is none the worse for having 
been long in hand ; neither would it be of any particular interest 
to the public to enumerate the causes which have delayed the 
completion till the present time. Having written it at intervals 
amid the labor of teaching, preaching, and translating, I have 
naturally embodied the result of investigations which I felt com- 
pelled to make for my own guidance. As a preparation, and a 
basis for the work, not a little time and attention have been 
given to the collecting of materials. Nothing could be done 
towards writing a genuine Zulu Grammar without a genuine 
Zulu literature. ' What is wanted and expected of a grammar,' 
as the writer has said in another place, ' is, that it give a clear 
statement and correct illustration of the forms and principles, the 
genius and idioms, of the language of which it treats. Hence, 
most of my examples, especially those of any length and partic- 
ular importance, as in Syntax, which makes a large part of the 
work, have been taken, not from a foreigner's translation of other 
languages into this, but, in some instances, from the correspond- 
ence and other compositions of the natives, in their OAvn tongue ; 
though chiefly from their conversation and discussions, narratives 
and speeches, on affairs of their own and of deepest interest to 
themselves, — their words and sentences being caught at the time 
they were spoken, and written out verhatim et literatim from the 
lips of the speaker.' 

I cannot close these prefatory remarks without acknowledging 
my obligations to all those ministers, merchants, editors, and 
other kind friends, whether in Natal or at the Cape, who have 
encouraged m€ in my work, and at different times, and in various 
ways, have shown a readiness to forward the interests of this 
publication. Especially to several of Her Majesty's Representa- 
tives in this part of the world — to His Excellenc}^ Sir George 



PREFACE. Vll 

Grey, K.C.B., Governor of the Cape Colony, etc., etc.; to His 
Excellency Sir Bexjamix Pine, formerly Lieutenant-Governor 
of Natal, now of St. Christopher's ; and to His Excellency Johx 
Scott, Esq., Lieutenant-Governor of the Colony, etc.; as also to 
the Legislative Council of the Colony ,^for the kind personal 
and official interest which they have shown, and for the very 
substantial aid which they have granted, the writer begs to offer 
his hearty thanks ; and to avail himself of this opportunity to 
give them an assurance of his respect and sense of obligation. 

With most reverent and grateful acknowledgments to the God 
of all grace, from whose ever-present aid I have derived strength 
and resolution to finish these labors, and by the unfailing conso- 
lations of whose Spirit I have been sustained in a time of pecu- 
liar need ; also Avith a humble yet fervent prayer that He will 
cause these labors to subserve the interests of His kingdom, — the 
book is now respectfully offered to those who have favored me 
with their subscriptions, and to all who seek a thorough knowl- 
edge of the Zulu language. 

LEWIS GROUT. 

Umsunduzi Mission Station, 
September, 1859. 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 

It was not without some surprise that the writer was asked, 
some two years ago, if he would revise his Zulu Grammar for a 
new Edition. Upon a little thought, being assured that a new 
Edition was needed, and being just then on the eve of completing 
other work of a similar character, he could but look upon this 
call as Divinely ordered, and consented the more readily to 
undertake the work as being in the line of studies in which he 
had been, for some years, specially interested. 

Some parts of the first Edition have been abridged in the revi- 
sion, as the Paradigm of the Verb ; some parts have been altered; 
in some places, new matter has been introduced. The whole of 
the third Section of the Introduction in the first Edition has been 
omitted in this, and its pages given to new matter having respect 
to the Extent, Relationship, and Character of the language. 
The Appendix of the former has been entirely displaced in this 
by matter of a somewhat comparative character. In this way 
the value of the Tenth Chapter in the body of the first Edition, 
though omitted in this, has been more than replaced from the 
fruits of more recent researches in widely separated parts of the 
great Bantu field. 

There was some delay in putting this work into the hands of 
the printer, in the hope that the missionaries of the several dif- 
ferent societies at work among the Zulus might agree upon some 
uniform method of writing the language of that people. But as 
yet no such agreement has been reached, though the importance 



Vlll PKEFACE. 

of it must continue to press itself, yet more and more, upon every 
Zulu scholar till tlie desired result shall be attained. The need 
of such agreement for the whole Bantu field cannot be denied. 
The lack of it is a matter of wide-spread and constantly increas- 
ing regret, and not less among all Bantu philologists than among 
all thoughtful, enterprising missionaries and missionary societies. 
The writer's preference for Lepsius' " Standard " and some of his 
reasons for that preference were given at some length in the first 
Edition of this work. Dr. Cust is very emphatic, and devotes a 
chapter to this subject in his "Modern Languages." Others feel 
and sjieak in the same way. The writer has before him a letter 
of recent date from one of the secretaries of a missionary society 
that has many laborers in the Kongo field, in which he voices the 
minds of the many, saying : "I have been deej^ly impressed, 
however, with the urgent need of all who are engaged in making 
translations in the languages of Central Africa agreeing upon 
some uniform method of orthography. Even our own mission- 
aries do not agree in their practice." This general, much desired 
uniformity must surely come ; and the sooner all missionaries and 
mission societies, and scholars that have aught to do with Bantu 
languages, address themselves unitedly to the work of securing it, 
difficult as it may be, the better, sooner, easier will it be reached. 

And now, in bringing these revisional labors to a close, I can 
but acknowledge the pleasure it has given me to be thus kindly 
invited, and, as I trust. Divinely directed, to engage in them, and 
so contribute, as I hope, to the greater intrinsic value of the 
work, as also to its affording more of help to those who are de- 
voting their lives to the weal of the Zulu and other tribes of the 
Bantu race. 

To my brethren in the Zulu field and in other parts of Africa, 
and to kind friends in Europe and America, who have given me 
words and means of aid and cheer, I hereby tender sincere 
thanks. Especially would I here make most grateful acknowl- 
edgment of obligations to Him who has so graciously continued 
to me the health and vigor needed to complete the work — begin 
and finish it, as I have endeavored to do, in His name, and now 
invoke upon it His blessing. 

LEWIS GROUT. 

March, 1893. 



COJSTTEE^TS. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Sect. Page 

I. On the Origin and Early Migrations of the Bantu Race xiv 

II. Historical Notes concerning the Amazulu xvii 

III. On the Extent, Kinship and Character of the Isizulu. xix 

Nature and Division of Grammar 1 

PART I.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Chapter I. — Letters and Sounds of the Language. 2 

Sect. 1. Alphabet . 2 

Sect. 2. Division of the Letters 3 

Sect. 8. Powers or Sounds of the Letters 4 

A. Vowels - 4 

1. Their number, origin, and value.. 4 

2. Quantity or length and strength of the Vowels 6 

3. Double Vowels and Diphthongs 7 

4. Euphonic Vowel-changes 9 

I. Contraction 9 

II. Crasis 9 

III. Apostrophe 10 

IV. Commutation 11 

V. Omission 12 

B. Consonants 12 

1. Their number and value . . . 12 

2. Classification and Relationship of Consonants. 15 

Table of Alphabetic Gradations 17 

Scheme of Cognates _ 18 

Table of Compatible Letters 19 

3. Combinations of Consonants 20 

4. Euphony and Consonantal Changes 22 

5. Euphonic Letters 24 

C. Clicks 26 

The dental click 26 

The palatal click 26 

The lateral click... 26 

Table of clicks _ 27 

Chapter 11.— Syllables and Words : or the Union of Sounds and 

the Division of Discourse. 28 

Sect. 1. General Remarks 28 

Sect. 2. Syllables 29 

Sect. 3. Words 30 

Sect. 4. Omission and Contraction of Syllables and Words. 31 

Chapter III. — Ziduizing Foreign Words. 33 

Chapter IY.— Accentuation. 34 

Chapter Y. — Quantity of a Syllable. 36 

Chapter VI. — Punctuation, Italics, and Capitals. 37 

PART IL— ETYMOLOGY. 

Chapter I. — Definitions and Classifications. 41 

Sect. 1. Definitions and General Remarks 41 

Sect. 2. Classification of Words 43 



X CONTENTS. 

Page 

Chapter II.— The Noun or Substantive. 44 

Sect. 1. Kinds of Nouns 44 

I. Concrete Nouns _ 44 

II. Abstract Nouns 45 

Sect. 2. Formation of Nouns . .__ _ 45 

I. Primitive Nouns 45 

II. Derivative Nouns 45 

A. Nouns derived from Nouns 45 

B. Nouns derived from Adjectives 47 

C. Nouns derived from Verbs 48 

D. Nouns derived from other parts of Speech _ 50 

III. Compound Nouns 50 

Sect. 3. Nominal Incipients or Pref ormatives _ 51 

Sect. 4. Classes and number of Nouns ._ 52 

I. First class 52 

II. Second class __ 53 

III. Third class 53 

IV. Fourth class 54 

V. Fifth class __ 54 

VI. Sixth class 54 

VII. Seventh class _ _ ___ 54 

VIII. Eighth class 55 

Table of the classes of Nouns 56 

Sect. 5. Irregular, Defective, and Redundant Nouns 56 

Sect. 6. Gender of Nouns _ 57 

Sect. 7. Cases of Nouns 58 

I. The Nominative Case 59 

II. TheGenitive Case 59 

III. The Accusative Case _ 62 

IV. The Locative Case 62 

V. The Vocative Case _ . 65 

Scheme of the declension of Nouns 66 

Chapter 111.— Adjectives. 66 

Sect. 1. Derivation of Adjecti^'es 67 

A. From Nouns _ 67 

B. From Adjectives 67 

C. From Verbs 67 

Sect. 2. Classes of Adjectives 68 

Sect. 3. Inflection of Adjectives 68 

A. As an Attributive 69 

Table of Adjectives declined as Attributives 70 

B. As a Predicate 70 

Table of Adjectives declined as Predicates 71 

Sect. 4. Numeral Adjectives ^ 73 

A. Cardinal Numbers - 73 

Table of Cardinal Numbers 75 

B. Ordinal Numbers 76 

C. Collective Numerals 76 

Sect. 5. Indefinite Adjectives 77 

Chapter TV .—Proyioims. 78 

Sect. 1. Classification of Pronouns ._ 79 

Sect. 2. A. Personal Pronouns 79 

A. The Pref ormative Pronoun 81 

B. The Simple Pronoun 82 

C. The Conjunctive Pronoun... 83 

D. The Definitive Pronoun 84 

E. The Possessive Pronoun 85 

F. The Reflective Pronoun 85 

Table of Personal Pronouns - 86 



CONTENTS. XI 

Page 

Sect. 3. B. Relative Pronouns 87 

Table of Relative Pronouns 89 

Sect. 4. C. Demonstrative Pronouns 90 

Table of Demonstrative Pronouns 91 

Sect. 5. D. Interrogative Pronouns 91 

Chapter V. — Ve7^bs. 93 

Sect. 1, Classification of Verbs 94 

A. Regular and Irregular, Primitive, Derivative, and Com- 

pound Verbs 94 

I. Primitive Verbs 94 

II. Derivative Verbs 94 

A. Radical species 95 

B. Relative species _ . _ _ 95 

C. Causative species 96 

D. Reciprocal species 96 

E. Reflective species 97 

F. Subjective species 97 

G. Deponent species 97 

H. Diminutive species 98 

ComxDOund species _ _ 98 

III. Compound Verbs 99 

Sect. 8. Classification of Verbs (continued) 100 

B. Principal and Auxiliary : Transitive and Intransitive ; 

Active and Passive ; Defective and Idiomatic Verbs 100 

A. Notional Verbs . 100 

B. Relational Verbs 102 

Idiomatic Verbs 108 

Sect. 3. Properties of Verbs 108 

A. On the Modes . - 108 

I. The Infinitive Mode .. 109 

II. The Indicative Mode 109 

III. The Potential Mode .--. 110 

IV. The Optative Mode Ill 

V. The Imperative Mode 112 

VI. The Subjunctive Mode 113 

B. OntheTenses 114 

A. General Remarks 114 

B. The Number of Tenses .._ 116 

c. Tenses of the several Modes 117 

A. Tenses of the indicative mode 117 

I. Present tense 117 

II. Past tense 121 

III. Future tense 127 

IV. Present perfect tense 130 

V. Past perfect tense 132 

VI. Future perfect tense 134 

B. Tenses of the potential mode 136 

I. Present tense 136 

II. Past tense... 137 

III. Future tense 138 

IV. Present perfect tense 138 

V. Past perfect tense 139 

VI. Future perfect tense 139 

C. Tenses of the optative mode ,. 140 

D. Tenses of the imperative mode 145 

E. Tenses of the subjunctive mode 1 46 

Sect. 4. Number and person 147 

Sect. 5. Conjugation... . 147 

Synoptic table of a Regular Verb 148 

Sect. 6. Irregular Verbs 165 

Sect. 7. Defective Verbs 169 



Xll CONTENTS. 

Page 

Chapter Yl.— Adverbs. 170 

I. Adverbs of Time 172 

II. Adverbs of Place 172 

III. Adverbs of Manner. _ 173 

IV. Interrogative Adverbs 173 

V. Numeral Adverbs ._. _. 174 

VI. Various kinds of Adverbs _ 174 

Table of Pronomino-Locative Adverbs _ 175 

Chapter YII.—Prepositio7is. 176 

Chapter YIII.— Conjunctions. 177 

Chapter IX.— Interjections. 178 

PAET III. -SYNTAX. 

Chapter I. — Propositions and Sentences. 179 

Sect. 1. Definitions and Remarks..- 179 

Sect. 2. Simple Propositions 181 

Sect. 3. Modified Subject 185 

Sect. 4. Modified Predicate 186 

Sect. 5. Variety of Combinations and Propositions 188 

I. The Predicative combination 188 

II. The Attributive combination 188 

III. The Objective combination 188 

Sect. 6. Compound Sentences 1 89 

I. Co-ordinate Sentences _._ 189 

II. Subordinate Sentences 191 

III. Incidental members _ 193 

Chapter 11.— Syntax of the Noun. 194 

Sect. 1. The Nominative 194 

Sect. 2. The Genitive 196 

I. In respect to origin 196 

II. In respect to ownership _. 197 

III. In respect to designation .- 197 

Genitive subjective and objective 199 

Sect. 3. The Accusative 201 

Sect. 4. The Locative 205 

Sect. 5. The Vocative ._ 207 

Chapter 111.— Syntax of the Adjective. 207 

Sect. 1. Agreement of Adjectives 207 

Sect. 2. Of Degrees, and Particular Words 213 

Sect. 3. Numerals 218 

Chapter lY.— Syntax of the Pronoun. 226 

Sect. 1. Agreement . 226 

Sect. 2. Personal Pronouns 230 

A. The Pronoun used as a Substitute 230 

B. The Pronoun used as a Complement 235 

Sect. 3. Eelative Pronouns 240 

Sect. 4. Demonstrative Pronouns 247 

Sect. 5. Interrogative Pronouns 249 

Chapter V. — Syntax of the Verb. 251 

Sect. 1. Agreement, Combination, and Expansion 251 

Sect. 2. Government of Verbs -255 

Continuity of Verbs - 259 

Sect. 3. Syntax of the Modes and Tenses. 261 

I. Infinitive Mode 262 

II. Indicative Mode 263 

III. Potential Mode. 263 



CONTENTS. Xlll 

Page 

IV. OptativeMode 264 

V. Imperative Mode 265 

VI. Subjunctive Mode 265 

A. Present tense 268 

B. Pasttense 268 

C. Future tense 269 

D. Present perfect tense _ 270 

E. Past perfect tense 270 

F. Future perfect tense 271 

Sect. 4. Idiomatic Verbs, Forms, and Uses 272 

Chapter VI. — Syntax of the Particle. 278 

A. The Adverb 279 

B. The Preposition 279 

C. The Conjunction _ 280 

D. The Interjection 280 

Chapter VII. — Syntax of Sentences. 281 

I. Co-ordinate Copulative Sentences 281 

II. Co-ordinate Adversative Sentences _ _ _ 281 

III. Co-ordinate Disjunctive Sentences 281 

IV. Co-ordinate Causal Sentences _ . _ 282 

V. Subordinate Substantive Sentences 282 

VI. Subordinate Adjective Sentences - - 283 

VII. Subordinate Adverbial Sentences 283 

VIII. Incidental Sentences . . _ 284 

Chapter yill.— Collocation of Words. 285 



APPENDIX. 

Page 

Sect. I. 1. On the ^'Incipient," "Preformative," or "Prefix"... 289 

2. OntheArticle 292 

Sect. II. Samples of Bantu Languages 293 

1 . Setyuana 293 

2. Sigwamba _ 294 

3. The Yao Language 295 

4. The Nyamwezi Language 297 

5. The Kiswahili 298 

6. The Otyiherero or Damara Language 299 

7. The Umbundu of Bihe and Bailundu 300 

8. The Kimbundu or Mbundu of Angola 301 

9. The Kongo Language 302 

10. The Mpongwe Language 304 

11. TheDikele 305 

The Mutual Relationship and Laws of the Bantu Lan- 
guages. 306 

Sect. III. 1 . Table of Prefixes of Bantu Languages 308 

2. Personal Pronouns of Bantu Languages 310 

3. Table of Numerals 311 

4. Comparison of Adjectives of Bantu Languages 312 



INTEODUCTIOK 



Sect. I. 
On the Origin and Early Migrations of the Bantu Race. 

In respect to the origin and early kinship and migrations of 
the Bantu or Zingian* race, and how, whence, or when they 
came into the parts of Africa they now occupy, the people them- 
selves can tell us nothing. And yet, amid all the diverse theories 
that have been advanced, we are not without some good reasons 
for a certain plausible opinion on these points. The apparent 
likeness of the Hottentot, in many respects, to the Old Egyptian 
family would indicate that the former was once a part of the 
latter. Comparing the language of the former with the Old 
Egyptian and Coptic tongue gives us a good clue to their ancient 
abode. The best philologists of the present day, or those who 
have had the best of opportunity for studying the Hottentot, 
Bushman and Koranna, and of comparing this most southern 
tongue with the ancient and most northern of the continent, the 
Egyptian and Coptic, and their cognates, find marked resem- 
blances between the two ; from which they infer that these 
extreme southern tribes were once sundered by some dividing 
wedge from the extreme northern, and by this wedge, this new, 
incoming power or alien race, of a very different language, were 
driven on southward, from age to age, till they finally reached 
their present abode in the southern angle of the continent. This 
linguistic argument is supported by the fact that the appearance, 
manners, customs of the Hottentots differ in many respects essen- 
tially from those of the Bantu race on their northern border, and 
yet afford good ground for classing them with the Old Egyptian 
and other North-African nations. Some of the learned at the 
Cape of Good Hope have found pictures and impressions among 
the antiquities of Egypt so like the Hottentot as to make it cer- 
tain, as they think, that the original of these representations must 
have been persons of this race. 

Then, again, the Hottentots of South Africa, in the days of 
old, as the early travelers in that region, and their own tradi- 

* This name, Zingian, Zinjian, or Zindj, as applied to what is now called the 
Bantu race, was given, originally, by the Arabs to such of this people as lived be- 
tween Abyssinia and Sofala, some ten centuries or more ago. Being adopted by 
others, it continued to be common till about half a century since, when it began 
to give place to other names, as ''Kafir," "Chuana," and finally to the name 
"Bantu," which has now come to be generally accepted, though not without 
some objections as not being in all respects such as could be desired. In respect 
to the former name, Zingian or Zinjian, I learn from the distinguished Semitic 
scholar, Prof. D. Gr. Lyon of Cambridge University, that "Zindj or Zandj is a 
Persian word meaning hlack, adopted by the Arabs after their 7th century con- 
(juest of Persia ; afterward applied by them to the blacks on the east coast of 
Africa, of whom they made slaves. Hence the name Zanguebar or Zanzibar, = 
slave-bearing or black-men-bearing country." 



INTRODUCTION. XV 

tions, tell lis, were wont to worship the moon ; the like to which, 
the historian tells ns, was found among the northern nations of 
Africa in their sidereal AForship. And yet Ave find no trace of 
this among their neighbors of the Bantu race. The gods of the 
Zulus are regarded as haAdng their home beneath, and never 
aboA^e. The northern nations of olden time, like the Hottentots 
from time immemorial, made use of the boAV and arrow, while the 
Zulu and his neighbors of the Bantu race use the spear, short 
SAVord, and AA^ar-club. And yet it is in looking at the more per- 
manent and marked feature of the Hottentot, his language, and 
its likeness to that of the Old Egyptian, that we find the strongest 
proof that the tAA^o families Avere one in origin ; and if so, then 
the fact of their being, eventually, so widely separated, points to 
the probable incoming of another people, as from the east, by 
AAdiich they AA^ere divided and a portion of them pushed on south- 
ward till they came to the other extreme of the continent. 
Irruptions from the north and east, in those early days, were not 
unknoAA^n. The Israelites and the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings, 
were noted instances. As the families of the earth multiplied in 
the home of their childhood and youth, it is easy to see hoAV 
there must have been a general pressure from the north and east 
to the south and west, especially from western Asia into the 
north-east of Africa, or from the Euphrates into Egypt. 

Inquiring, noAv, as to which particular branch of the great 
families of men the incursiA'-e, immigrating race belonged, we can 
hardly doubt that it AA^as Hamitic, having its origin, probably, in 
some branch of the Cushites. The descendants of this line Avere 
numerous, and some of them settled, for a time at least, in Asia. 
Thus, Ninirod, the mighty hunter, who AA^as one of the sons of 
Cush, built several large towns in Babylon. Others settled in 
Arabia, and doubtless many Avent, at an early date, to Africa, and 
settled along the Nile in Egypt or further south about Meroe. 
Herodotus speaks of tAA^o classes of Ethiopians, one in Asia, the 
other in Africa. Many of the former served as soldiers under 
Xerxes, though their home is not easily determined. The histo- 
rian, however, tells us that the Asiatic Ethiopians Avere black, 
like those of Libya, but differed from them in language, and had 
straight hair, AAdiereas those of Libya had very curly hair. Now, 
between the Bantu tribes and the proper Negro race, there is, to 
a certain extent, just this kind of difference at the present time. 
To be sure, the Bantu race is not now white, and yet their hue is 
not so dark as that of the Nigritian Negro, nor is their hair so 
woolly ; and, as to their language, that most decisive mark of an 
affinity or of a difference, there is known to be a Avide difference 
between the Bantu on the south of the equator, and the real 
Negro of the Soudan and neighboring dialects of the north. 

Taking, then, all these suggestiA^e thoughts and facts together, 
*' AA'Ould it not seem," as said for substance in ' Zulu-Land,' " that 
the Bantu race had its origin in central or western Asia, perhaps 
in Armenia, more likely farther south, possibly on the Euphrates, 



XVI INTRODUCTION. 

and that, in process of time, being straitened for room, it broke 
away from its original seat, or was driven out, the whole, or in 
part, and led to shape its course to the south-west ; either carried 
along by a general movement, or drawn by attractions of kindred, 
in that direction, until they came to Mizraim in the land of the 
Nile ? Finding the first valley of that river already too full, 
they pass on, though not without driving a portion of the people 
before them, — a portion, perhaps, already crowded out into the 
more open country on the south, in search of a new home and a 
wider field. Ascending the Nile, they move along the eastern 
coast, until, at length, they reach the country and condition in 
which we now find them. 

" Of course, in passing through so niany new lands, and so many 
ages of being, and coming in contact with other races, the orig- 
inal character and speech of this Zingian or Bantu race would be 
considerably modified. Their progress being slow, they would 
naturally intermarry with neighboring tribes ; and be fashioned, 
physically, mentally, and morally, to some extent by the people, 
the country, the climate, the customs, and other molding influ- 
ences to which they were exposed. In this way, whether orig- 
inally a branch of the real negro stock or not, it is easy to 
account for both the agreement and the difference which we find 
to exist at the present day between the two families. The Bantu 
i-ace cradled in Asia, — as our speculations incline us to believe, — 
and the genuine negro or Ethiopic, in Africa ; the one living for 
ages perhaps, without the tropic in the east, while the other 
hasted to its more sunny home in the great peninsula ; the 
former, perchance, long associated with Japhetic or Semitic 
nations, and much traveled withal ; while the latter doubtless 
came into being, and passed both the plastic season of its youth 
and its maturer age, in the same secluded, sandy region where it 
is noAV found; it is easy to see why the Kafir, the Zulu, and all their 
kin, though they spring from the same common stock as the Negro, 
should be found at this day more robust, taller, of a lighter color, 
with hair less woolly, with a nose more elevated, of a much 
greater facial angle, a higher forehead, and altogether of a more 
intelligent, Caucasian look, than their Nigritian neighbors of the 
Ethiopic or Negro stamp. At the same time we see in these 
Zulu and Kafir tribes, in the whole race, so much of the true 
negro type, so much of dark color in the skin, of curling and 
woolliness in the hair, of breadth in the nostrils, of thickness in 
the lips, so much of likeness in the eyes and in other respects to the 
other race, — the tribes which now flank their domain on the north, 
— that we must come to the conclusion, that, if the Bantu family 
had an origin either more ancient or more modern, or in any wise 
other than the Negroes of Nigritia, it mingled with these in its 
formative days, on its migratory way through the Ethiopic 
regions, till it was largely imbued with their spirit, and fashioned 
after their type." 



Sect. II. 
Historical JSTotes concerning the Amazulu, 

In respect to the more recent origin, history and abode of the 
larger of the sonth-eastern tribes of the Bantu family, the Kafir 
or Xosa and Zulu, modern historians are not silent. They tell us 
that the Kafirs came gradually down from the north-east several 
hundred years ago, and settled in districts lying between the Kei 
and the Umzimkulu, out of which they crowded the weaker Hot- 
tentot and Bushman tribes. The name Kafir, from the Arabic 
Kefir or Kaf r, which signifies " infidel," or those who do not hold 
the Moslem faith, was first applied by Arabs to the pagan tribes, 
with which as traders they came in contact along the east coast 
of Africa, which would seem to give sanction to the above his- 
toric saying. And then, too, in the Kafir's practice of polygamy, 
and the rite of circumcision, and especially in his proud bearing 
and martial spirit, in his somewhat Arabic features, in his hue, 
not generally so dark as that of the pure Negro, many see proof 
of his having been, for a time, and at an early date, with mem- 
bers of the Arab race. 

The Zulus also, according to tradition and the testimony of 
generations that have but lately passed away, came in, some gen- 
erations ago, from the north, and took up their abode first on the 
Imfolosi and Umhlatusi rivers, and then farther south, as far as 
Umzimkulu, and farther east, till they came into the vicinity of 
Delagoa Bay. Not to go back beyond a somewhat definite 
knowledge* of them, we find them a small tribe under the chief- 
tain Usenzangakona, son of Jama, and father of Tyaka. Tyaka, 
born in 1787, was a chieftain of great enterprise in his way, of 
great ambition, military prowess, success, and consequent fame. 
Starting out at the head of a small army, he assailed and sub- 
dued tribe after tribe, and incorporated all into his own, till he 
had mastered and filled the realm of which we have spoken, and 
made himself to be feared by the Dutch and English at the Cape, 
by the Tyuana tribes on the west, and by the far distant tribes 

* During the writer's earlier years of life and labor among the Zulus, it being 
now well nigh half a century since he first went out, he undertook to gather up 
from every available source, as from the earlier travelers and residents in that re- 
gion, and from many of the older and more intelligent of the natives from different 
parts of the country and from different branches of the Zulu nation, all that could 
be known concerning the origin and growth of the Zulu element of the Bantu 
race. Some of these older Zulu historians, being 50 or 60 years of age when they 
gave their narratives, had been eye-witnesses of the important events, or even 
actors in those great revolutionary scenes, that transpired now well nigh 10 
decades ago. These historical studies of the writer, having respect, as they did, 
to the entire life and reign of Tyaka, not only took account of the methods and 
results of the wars he waged, but inchided a careful enumeration and brief de- 
scription of something more than 40 of the cognate tribes that he subdued and 
incorporated into his own in the earlier part of the present century. 



XVm INTRODUCTION. 

on the north and north-east, till, finally, in 1828, he was himself 
assassinated through the jealousy and instigation of two brothers, 
one of whom, Dingan, took his place and power. Dingan's reign, 
of some 10 or 12 years, was brought to a close through a large 
part of his subjects going over, under his brother, Umpande, to 
aid the Boers in their war against him ; when, having been 
chased out of the country and died of his wounds, his kingdom 
was divided, in 1840 ; and the southern half of it, called the 
ISTatal District, came into the hands of the Dutch, and then, in 
1842, into the hands of the English, and so became a British 
colony ; while the northern half, that which since has gone by 
the name of Zulu-Land, came under the rule of Umpande, 
brother of the two previous kings. Umpande continued, nomin- 
ally, at the head of affairs till the day of his death in October, 1872, 
though, for the last ten or fifteen years of his life, the govern- 
ment was virtually in the hands of his son Ketchwayo (Ucety- 
wayo). In June, 1873, ostensibly at the request of the Zulu 
nation, Ketchwayo was installed king in the place of his now 
deceased father. He held ofiice till the English-Zulu war in 
1879, when he was taken captive and carried to Cape Town, and 
thence to England. The British government now assumed a 
kind of moral protection and control over the Zulu realm, 
divided it into sections, over each of which they set a kinglet, 
the result of which was confusion and strife. Then Ketchwayo 
was taken back to Zulu-Land and reinstated king, Jan. 31, 1883, 
over at least a part of his former realm. One of the kinglets, 
however, not being pleased with this, soon had a quarrel with 
the quasi-king, in which the latter was wounded, and soon died, 
though not of his wounds. The country is still divided into sec- 
tions and, nominally, under the rule of chiefs, though the gov- 
ernor of Katal has a general supervision ; and, for the present, 
all is said to be orderly and peaceful. 

The number and prestige of this people, their naturally aggres- 
sive, conquering, assimilating character, and the fact that bands 
or clans of them have long had a controlling, absorbing, molding 
influence in many parts of the Bantu field, have all served to 
make them, both as a people and a language, a prominent, lead- 
ing, lordly representative of the entire Bantu Family to which 
they belong. 



Sect. III. 
On the Extent^ Kinship and Character of the Isizulu. 

1. In respect to the general principles and affinities of the great 
Bantu Family of Languages. 

The mutual relationship of the several members of this family, 
as seen in the roots of many words and in a general uniformity 
of grammatical structure, is, for substance, about as distinct, and 
yet close, as in the different members of the Aryan Family, such 
as the English, French and German ; nor is the relation between 
the several members hardly more uniform or manifest in the 
former than in the latter. Lexical affinities and a certain fixed 
system of grammatical features pervade the entire Bantu Family, 
making all members more or less akin ; and yet, as species, all 
are severally distinct. Though they differ, on the one hand, too 
far from each other to be mutually intelligible, yet on the other, 
to the comparative philologist, their mutual affinities are such as 
to leave no doubt that they all came, originally, from one com- 
mon stock. 

Some of the characteristics of this Family are denoted by 
speaking of it as a Prefix-Pronominal, Non-Sex-Denoting class of 
Languages. As between these and other inflected languages, the 
great point of difference is, that, in the Bantu languages most of 
the inflections are in the beginnings instead of in the endings of 
the words. The nouns consist of two parts, a root and an initial 
or preformative element, usually called a " Prefix." According 
to this prefix, and the change it undergoes in forming the plural, 
nouns are divided into some six or eight classes, more or less, and 
the grammatical construction of a sentence consists in a kind of 
alliterative agreement or concord between the prefix of the lead- 
ing noun and all the other parts, as adjectives, pronouns and 
verbs, that have any relation to the noun. The pronouns of 
different classes correspond to the form of the prefix in that 
class ; the adjective is seen to agree with the noun it qualifies, by 
its taking over the prefix of that noun as its own ; and a verbal 
predicate is seen to agree with its nominal subject by its having a 
direct pronominal subject whose form is essentially that of the 
noun's prefix. It is in this general system of correspondence, 
repetitions and assimilations, the frequent recurrence of the 
noun's initial element in a given sentence, that we find the 
groundwork and great law of grammatical construction for that 
entire Family, to which the Zulu, of which we now proceed to 
speak more in particular, belongs. 

2. The extent, habitat, relationship and character of the Isi- 
zulu. 

The Zulu language is spoken not only by the native inhabit- 
ants of Natal, who now (1893), number nearly half a million 



XX INTKODUCTION. 

(456,000), but also by the multitudes of that people in Zululand 
and in numerous districts farther north and west. To be sure, 
there are many slight dialectic and tribal modifications of this 
language among the several different branches of the family. 
Nor is this strange when we consider that the Zulu nation, as we 
have known it in the past, was developed from the bringing in 
of a great number of neighboring and cognate tribes, which were 
conquered and consolidated with the Zulu in the days of Tyaka, 
— " the various tribes that were welded together," says the histo- 
rian Theal, "by Tyaka, and have since formed the Amazulu or 
Zulus." 

It is evident, however, that the language of all these tribes 
was substantially one from long before the days of Tyaka ; as it 
is also evident that, since that time the entire combination has 
been subject to a steadily refining, elevating, consolidating j^ro- 
cess ; the language of the conquered being gradually fashioned 
to the higher standard and more fixed character of that spoken 
by their superiors. Nor can we believe that any of the African 
languages or dialects come to us, at the present time, in a state of 
greater original purity than the Isizulu. 

If we look at the history of nations and languages, we shall 
find, generally, that those have been most affected and modified 
in character, which have come most into connection and collision 
with other nations and languages ; and, so again, that those 
which have retained their ori2:inal character longest and least 
affected, are such as have been most isolated from nations and 
languages of a different character. 

Again, nations and languages have generally gone in waves 
one after another over the different parts of the earth, the fore- 
most wave being the last to feel the influence of those which 
follow. And we have examples of nations and languages, retir- 
ing into some nook, or lodging under the lee, as it were, and 
there retaining their original character to a wonderful extent, for 
ages ; while their more exposed neighbors have, in the mean 
time, undergone most rapid and wonderful changes. 

Now, there is reason to believe that this general and very 
natural law has held in respect to the nations and languages of 
this continent ; and that there is no part of South Africa, where 
foreign influence has come in later, or been felt less, than in case 
of the language and tribes of which we speak, particularly the 
Zulu. All these nations have evidently come in, centuries since, 
wave after wave, from the north, and passed along, from age to 
age, to the south, each crowding and crowded on, until the fore-, 
most reached the southern limits of the continent. At the same 
time, also, the interior tribes have generally turned outward, 
towards the sea, in their progress. Facts might be given in de- 
tail, showing this to have been clearly the case in this part of 
Africa, and also in some other parts of the continent. 

At the southern extremity, however, the foremost Avave met 
others, of a different character. Thus, the Kafirs or Amaxosa 



INTKODUCTION. XXI 

came in contact with the Hottentots, and afterwards with the 
Dutch and English, all using languages totally different from 
that class to which the Zulu belongs ; Avhile the Arabic and 
other tongues have had their modifying influences upon the lan- 
guages of the same class in the rear, or further to the north. In 
a word, all historical analogy and facts go to indicate that, in 
this part of Africa, we may properly suppose the original charac- 
teristics of that great famil}^ of languages, to which the Zulu, 
Setyuana, Kafir, and other sisters belong, have been preserved 
most perfect. 

This view of the subject invests the study of the Isizulu with 
peculiar interest, and makes a knowledge of it highly subservient 
to a right understanding of the apparently anomalous forms and 
principles of kindred dialects. Nor is it less true that a careful 
study of the kindred dialects will greatly facilitate the progress 
of the scholar who aims at a perfect knowledge of the Isizulu. 
" With such endless connections, does each language run into 
and out of others, before, around, and behind it, that no one can 
be studied with any adequacy by itself alone." 

In this connection, the thoughtful, instructive remarks of the 
Rev. J. L. Dohne, in the Introduction to his Zulu-Kafir Dic- 
tionary, are worth being reproduced and studied, especially where 
he says : " It was a particular point of his (Tyaka's) policy, to 
locate all the subjugated chiefs at his own residence, and, having 
distributed their people among his own, to keep them in strict 
subordination and constant fear of himself. Those of them who 
spoke another dialect than the Zulu were prohibited from doing 
so in his presence, and addressed him by means of an interpreter. 
This was continued until they were able to express themselves 
properl}^ in the Zulu language, which was, on that account, 
called the JJkukuluma, that is, the high language, while all the 
inferior dialects are called the Amalala. In this manner the 
great Zulu king founded and secured his dominion over many 
tribes. . . . It is evident that the Zulu dialect, by Tyaka's law 
regarding the JJkukulmna, has retained its originality with a 
precision and gravity of expression far beyond the other dialects." 

A few further notes, giving, for substance, the fruits of some 
of the more recent linguistic researches and the essence of the 
opinions of distinguished Bantu scholars concerning these lan- 
guages, can hardly fail to be of service to such as ma}^ be inter- 
ested in these studies, and yet have no ready access to some of 
the later and better writings on these subjects. As among these 
writings, we refer, first, to those of Dr. W. H. I. Bleek, whose 
connection with Sir George Grey's remarkably large and fine 
collection of books, grammars, dictionaries, translations, etc., in 
and about African languages, gave him the best of opportunity 
to study, analyze and comjjare them. His great object was to 
give a comparative view of the structure and principles of all 
such aboriginal languages as are spoken in the South-Central 
part of Africa, so far as they were known at the time of his 



XXll INTRODUCTION. 

writing. Of these languages he makes three general classes, the 
Bantu, Hottentot and Bushman, and evidently regarded the 
Zulu or Zulu-Kafir as the best representative of the fornier. 

He held, and rightly, that, so far as our present knowledge 
goes, the Bantu family occupies all that part of South Africa 
which lies between the Hottentot-Bushman region and the equa- 
tor; that is, on the eastern side of the continent, from the Keis- 
kamma to the equator, and on the western, from 23° south to 
about 8° north latitude. Indeed members of this family, in 
his estimate, are found spread over the western portions of 
Africa as far northward as Sierra Leone and the banks of the 
Senegal, including the Bullom and Temne languages, which he 
counted as cousins to the Kafir, being here interspersed with 
members of the Gor family, the Fulah, Wolof, and others which, 
being cognates of the Bantu, as he believed, form together with 
it the African section of this class. 

Dr. Bleek divides this great Bantu family into three general 
branches, the large middle, which lies between the tropic of Cap- 
ricorn and the equator, and two detached branches, one to the 
south-south-east, the other, to the north-north-west. Each branch 
comprises several languages which are about as distinct from each 
other as the English from the German, or as the French from the 
Italian or Portuguese. The south-eastern branch consists of 
three species, Kafir, Setyuana, and Tekeza. Of these three lan- 
guages, the Kafir and Zulu have the fuller forms, the more orig- 
inal structural features and the greater melody in sound. The 
Kafir differs from the Zulu more in the idiomatic use of its words 
than it does in their form. 

The Betyuana, who generally go by the name Abasutu among 
the Zulus, separated as they are from the Kafir and Zulu tribes 
on the east, by the Kwathlamba mountains, stretch westward 
to the Kalahari desert, and extend from the Orange river on the 
south to some of the sources of the Zambezi on the north. Of 
these, Bleek makes two divisions, the eastern, in which he in- 
cludes the Basutu, Baperi and other tribes ; and the western, in 
which he includes the Barolong, Bahlapi, Bamangwato and 
others. 

The limits of the Tekeza language have been very much re- 
duced from what they once were, extending, for the present, 
from Zululand on the south to some distance north of Delagoa 
Bay. In former times it seems to have been spoken all along the 
coast of the Zulu country, where the Zulu now prevails, though 
some of the peculiarities of the Tekeza may still be found there. 
The Amancolosi of Natal are said to use this dialect among 
themselves to this day. The Tekeza includes the dialects spoken 
by the Amatonga, Amahlengwe and other tribes in the Delagoa 
region, the Amalala not excepted. But these tribes, as Bleek 
says, " have now almost all adopted the Zulu language." The 
Zulu language is not only the standard in Natal and Zululand, 
whence it has almost entirely displaced the Tekeza dialects which 



INTRODUCTION. XXlll 

once prevailed along the coast in the northern parts of this re- 
gion, but it is also spoken by several very considerable remnants 
of Zulu tribes that withdrew from the northern part of Zululand 
and went west under the lead of Umzilikazi, during the reign of 
Dingan, or about the year 1830, and settled, at first among the 
Betyuana on the sources of the Yaal, near the Empama or 
Kashan mountains, where they were called Matabele. Since then 
this branch of the Zulus, being joined by some of the Betyuana 
who measurably adopted their language, on being driven out by 
the Boers in 1837, has spread northward till they have come to 
settle, some of them, among the tributaries of the Zambezi in the 
region of latitude from 16° to 20° south. Besides these, several 
bands of Zulus, some ten or a dozen at least, joined by recruits 
from other tribes, who liaA^e adopted the habits and language of 
their Zulu leaders, have gone north of the Zambezi, some of 
them as far as to the Victoria Nyanza region ; concerning whom 
Dr. Cust says, " the uniform testimony of travelers is, that they 
speak Zulu, though probably composed of many different ele- 
ments." 

From the account of the Wahuma, in the Nyanza region, as 
given in Stanley's " Darkest Africa," it w^ould seem that they 
must have much in common with the Zulus, and be, at least lin- 
guistically, closely related to them. From his "Comparative 
Table " of Languages, in a list of 80 words we find a very consid- 
erable number essentially the same as in Zulu ; and at an inter- 
view had with Stanley, w^hen he was in this country some two or 
three years ago, it was found that " the wife of one of his Zanzi- 
bar men, a Zulu woman from Natal, was able to converse with 
these Humas. The regognition between them seems to have 
been mutual. The Humas said, ' This woman is one of our peo- 
ple ; where did she come from ?' To them the woman replied, 
' From Zululand, the country of Tyaka.' " 

The Bangoni or Mangoni, under Mombera, on the plateau west 
of Lake Nyasa, who went north from Natal in the early part of 
the present century, still speak a form of the Zulu, and have the 
gospel and school books printed in it b}^ the missionaries laboring 
among them. 

Besides the proper or more classic Zulu, there are several 
closely related varieties, among which are reckoned the Tefula 
and Amaswazi dialects ; the latter of which, on the north of 
Zululand, is thought to have been a connecting link between the 
Kafir and the Tekeza species. This Amaswazi dialect, like the 
Tekeza and Tefula, uses t where the Zulu and Kafir would use z; 
as, itinto for izinto ; umfati, ioY lunfazi ; but differs from the 
Tekeza in not dispensing with nk and p ; nor does it change nt 
and ml into n, nor v into /*, as the Tekeza does. The Tefula, of 
widely extended use in the northern part of Zululand, as among 
the Umtetwa and Amacwabi, differs from the pure Zulu chiefly 
in its softer pronunciation of certain consonants, such as using y 
for /, t for z, b or v for/, and n for ny or nt ; thus, yapa instead 



XXIV INTRODUCTION. 

of lapa ; itono tami tonke, instead of izono zanii zoiike ; inama 
for inyama / and umunu instead of umuntu. 

But, " generally speaking," as Dohne says, " the Zulu distin- 
guishes only two dialects, the high language, Ukukuluma, and 
the low, Amalala. To the first belong the Zulu, Tembu, and 
Xosa ; to the second, the languages of the other tribes of N^atal, 
the Frontier Fingoes, the Sutus, etc. Another S23ecification of 
the dialects is the Ukukuluma, high language ; the Ukuteta, a 
clear, sharp pronunciation ; the Ukutekeza, which usually omits 
the nasal sounds, and transmutes some consonants ; the Ukute- 
f ula, which changes some labials and liquids ; and the Amalala, 
using none except low, broad, flat sounds. But this classification 
is merely nominal, and the Zulu itself bears the stamp of the 
Tekeza and Tefula in many practical points, as in its soft form 
ngi, — 7igi ya tanda, and ^/^, yisibi. , And in these points it again 
differs from the Xosa, which has the sharp sounds 7idi, si, etc. 
The distinguishing character of the high language is, that it is 
comparatively free from many harsh and flat sounds, and always 
compounds the nasal or liquid sounds before d, y, b,p, etc., as in 
tanda, tenga, lianiba, mpompa, etc., in which points it exactly 
agrees with the Tembu, Xosa and others. The Zulu, however, 
sometimes differs considerably from the Xosa in respect to idiom, 
rarely making use of conjunctions, and usually giving verb to 
verb, in the construction of sentences." 

In both his " Philology " and his " Comparative Grammar," 
Dr. Bleek evidently took the Zulu or Zulu-Kafir, as it is some- 
times called, to be not only the standard for Xatal and Zululand, 
but the best representative, most original and complete, of the 
Bantu family, " having in general the most original and best pre- 
served ancient forms." The difference, as he says, between the 
Zulu and the real Kafir or Xosa lies far more in the peculiar and 
idiomatic use of words and constructions, than in the elementary 
parts of their structure or in pronunciation. The author of this 
(now revised) grammar once compared an edition of the Psalms 
in Kafir with one in Zulu, and found, on an average, one essen- 
tial or notional word to a verse in Kafir, not known in Zulu, or 
else known in a sense quite different from what it had in Kafir, 
as appeared from the translation. He also found that about half 
the essential or notional words actually used in the two transla- 
tions, the Kafir and the Zulu, differed, while the other half were 
the same ; that is, when the best words were taken in the two 
dialects or languages, respectively^, about one-half Avere the same, 
the other half different. 

The pronoun of the first person singular, whether used as the 
subject or the object of a verb, has, in Zulu, the primitive form 
tigi, instead of the ndi of the Kafir, or ki of the Setyuana. The 
word for " person " which is found, for substance, in nearlj^ or 
quite all of the Bantu languages, has the most original form, 
i(mimtu in the Zulu ; being mnntu in the Kafir ; muno in 
Tekeza, mothu in Setyuana, mutu or nitu in some, laundu or 



INTRODUCTION. XXV 

onmndu in some, and still other forms in others. So, in respect 
to the plural of this word ; instead of the full original Zulu or 
Xosa form ahantii, " people," in the different Bantu languages 
we find various other forms ; as, antu, vantii, wantu, andu, atu, 
icatu, hathu, or ovandu. 

In the " Introduction " to his " Zulu-Kafir Dictionary," the dis- 
criminating and scholarly author speaks briefl}^ of some of the 
general characteristics of this language, and says, very truly, 
that almost ever}^ one, who is acquainted with it in its present 
state, is " struck with its minute accuracy and fulness of expres- 
sion, and its copiousness of form. And if we consider that the 
people who speak it are, with slight exception, living in a state 
of barbarism, a strong impression is created that it was once the 
language of a race possessed of far higher cultivation than the 
present Kafirs, all traces of whose existence is lost in remote 
antiquit3^" 

He then speaks of the language as being, at the present time, 
"massive and bulky in both form and idea," but goes on to say 
that even this massiveness of form, which really represents the 
sj^irit of the people, "may be called a beauty," as it leads to "a 
peculiar flexibility in the formation of compound words ; while 
its tendency to euphony, in cases of inflection, avoids all discord 
in vowels, and changes inharmonious consonants into others 
nearly allied to them, as may be seen in the passive voice, loca- 
tive case, and other grammatical mutations." 

What is here said of accuracy, fulness of expression and copi- 
ousness of form, and of the beaut}^ of the Zulu-Kafir, holds also 
largely in respect to most other of the leading members of the 
Bantu family, at least so far as they have come to be as yet 
known. The late Rev. J. L. Wilson, D.D., author of " A Gram- 
mar of the Mpongwe Language," " Comparative Vocabularies," 
etc., etc., has been cited by Dr. Cust as saying that these Bantu 
languages are soft, pliant, and flexible to an almost unlimited ex- 
tent. Their grammatical principles are founded upon the most 
systematic and philosophical basis, and the number of words 
may be multiplied to an almost indefinite extent. They are capa- 
ble of expressing all the nicer shades of thought and feeling ; 
and perhaps no other languages of the world are capable of more 
definiteness and precision of expression. Livingstone justly re- 
marks that a complaint of the poverty of the language is often 
only a sure proof of the scanty attainments of the complainant. 
As a fact, the Bantu languages are exceedingly rich. Every 
knoll, hill, mountain and peak has a name, and so has every 
watercourse, dell and plain. It would take a long time to discuss 
the meaning of these names. It is not the want but the super- 
abundance of names that misleads the traveler, the terms used are 
so multifarious. The fulness of the language is such that there 
are scores of ^vords to indicate variety of gait, lounging, swag- 
gering ; each mode of walking is expressed by words ; and more 
words are used to describe the different kinds of fools than he 



XXVI INTRODUCTION. 

had tried to count. The different branches of this wide-spread 
family, as Wilson adds, have been greatly affected by contact 
with their neighbors ; on the west coast by the Portuguese, and 
on the north-west frontier by the Negro group ; on the south by 
the Hottentot, Bushman and Dutch ; on the east coast by the 
Portuguese, Malagasi and Arabs ; and on the north-east frontier 
by the Hamitic group. And yet, notwithstanding these alien in- 
fluences, and the accession of loan-words, the different languages 
retain their original words and grammar without material modifi- 
cation, and show far more affinity than could be expected of 
tribes in a low state of culture, living so far aj^art, and deprived 
of all friendly intercourse. 

In his Preface to a " Dictionary and Grammar of the Kongo 
Language," of some 742 pages, the author. Rev. W. H. Bentley, 
having referred to the richness, flexibility, exactness, subtlety of 
idea, and nicety of expression he found in that language, very 
truthfull}^ says : " This wealth in idea and form does not specially 
characterize Kongo, but is possessed by the whole family of 
Bantu languages to a greater or less extent. Identical rules, 
words, forms, and turns of expression are spread over the whole 
area inhabited by the Bantu race, and are found among peoples 
who can have had no intercommunication since their first separa- 
tion, such as the languages spoken at the Cameroons and in Zulu- 
land, which are 3,000 miles apart. The wide-spread possession 
of these qualities points to their existence in the parent stem, 
which must have been itself of a high class, as in the case of that 
language in which were written those early Vedic hymns, sung 
in Hindu worship, at the time when Moses was growing up to 
manhood at the court of the Pharaohs." 

In the great, substantial unity amid the rich variety, which we 
find in the Bantu languages, together with their general flexi- 
bility and wonderful capacity for growth and molding, we see 
reason to believe that the best elements of each and all may yet 
be gathered and embodied into one rich, complete whole ; just as 
the English, having appropriated and utilized the best qualities 
of many, " like bees," as Camden says, " gathering the honey of 
their good properties, and leaving the dregs to themselves " has 
come to be, doubtless, the most perfect of all that the world has 
yet seen. 

To aid in selecting and consolidating the best elements of all 
the best members of the great Bantu family of languages, into 
one rich, strong, flexible, yet simple, chaste, expressive whole, 
that shall be alike the property and for the use of the millions of 
the Bantu race, should be the aim of every missionary and 
scholar that can have a part in such a blessed work for such a 
race and lano^uas^e in these wonderful, chano-eful, reconstructive 
days through which we and they all are now passing. 



A REVISED GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ZULU LANQUAQE 



Usus 
Queni penes arbitrium est, et jus, et norma loquendi. 

Horace. 



Nature and Division of Grammar. 

§ 1. Zulu G-eammar treats of the principles and rules of the 
Zulu Language. 

§ 2. The division and arrangement of the grammar are nat- 
urally suggested by the three elementary parts of the lan- 
guage, viz : sounds, words, and sentences. 

The first part, which treats of the sounds of the language, 
together with the letters by which these are expressed, and of 
their union into syllables and words, is called Orthography. 

The second part, which treats of the classification, deriva- 
tion, and inflection or forms of words, is called Etymology. 

The third part, which treats of the laws by which words 
are arranged and combined in sentences, is called Syntax. 



PAKT I.— OKTHOGKAPHY. 

CHAPTER I. 
LETTERS AND SOUNDS OF THE LANGUAGE* 

Sect. 1. — Alphabet. 

§ 3. The alphabet here proposed to be used in writhig the 
Zuhi Language consists of 27 letters, as follows : — 





ms. 


Names. 




Powers. 


For 


- 










As in English. 


As in Zulu. 


A 


a 


a 


father 


umame, bala. 


B 


b 


be 


but 


bopa, ubisi. 


C 


c 


ce 




cela, amacala. 


D 


d 


de 


did"'" 


deda, udade. 


E 


e 


e 


they 


etu, wena. 


F 


f 


fe 


fate 


fika, ukufa. 


G 


g 


ge 


game 


geza, igama. 


H 


li 


he 




hamba, hola. 


f 


I 


!e 




! weba, umlezo. 


i 


i 


i 


ravine 


iso, mina. 


J 


J 


je 


jade 


jabula, ijuba. 


K 


k 


ke 


king 


kodwa, inkuku. 


L 


1 


le 


love 


lala, pola. 


M 


m 


me 


man 


mila, umame. 


N 


n 


ne 


name 


nika, kona. 


O 


o 





note 


bona, kona. 


P 


P 


pe 


pine 


pata, upape. 


Q 


q 


qe 


. - . . 


qeda, amaqanda. 


R 


r 


re 


rose 


Umaria, Ukeristu. 


S 


s 


se 


sav 


sala, usuku. 


T 


t 


te 


tide 


teta, umuti. 


U 


u 


u 


pool 


uti, umusa. 


V 


V 


ve 


vine 


vala, imvula. 


w 


w 


we 


way 


wetu, ukuwa. 


X 


X 


xe 





xopa, Utixo. 


Y 


y 


ye 


year 


yeka, buya. 


Z 


z 


ze 


zeal 


zala, izono. 



§4. Of these twentj-seven characters, twenty-six are the 
same in form, though not all the same in power, as in the 
English alphabet ; while one, !, the exclamation point, used to 
represent one of the gutturals, is here introduced anew. 

* For a full discussion of the whole subject of Zulu "phonology and 
orthography," see American Oriental Journal, vol. iii, No. 2, pp. 423- 

472. 



DIVISION OF THE LETTERS, 6 

Remark.— The power, value, or sound of these letters, and the change 
which the introduction of the above new character has upon the orthog- 
raphy of the language, will be more fully shown in the following 
sections, particularly the 9th, 10th, and 18th paragraphs. 

§ 5. (1) A full and perfect alphabet of the Isizulu, as of any 
language, would contain a number of letters precisely equal to 
the number of simple sounds belonging to the language. 
Every such sound would have its own distinct character, and 
that character never be used in the same language to represent 
any other sound. 

(2) The author could have wished it practicable for him to 
use Dr. Lepsius' " Standard " — the nearest approach, as yet, 
to such a perfect alphabet — in this work. But, in the circum- 
stances, being prevented from doing as he would, he concludes 
to follow, for substance, the method now in use by the mission 
for which this grammar is now revised, simply premising that 
this need not prevent any future change in a new edition of 
this work, should one be required, or in other books to be 
hereafter printed, should such a change be deemed advisable. 

Sect. 2. — Division of the Letters. 

§ 6. The most general and natural division of the Zulu 
alphabet is into vowels^ consonants^ and clicks. 

The vowels, or vocalic sounds, are those which are formed without 
resisting or interrupting the stream of air from the lungs by bringing 
any of the parts of the mouth into contact. 

The consonants, or consonantal sounds, are those which are formed 
or articulated by the meeting together of some pair of the organs of the 
mouth, to intercept and compress the air, as it issues from the throat. 
The consonants, by themselves, are but obscurely heard, and become 
distinctly audible only in conjunction with the vowels. And hence 
they are called consonants, or joint sounds. 

The clicks are those peculiar, sharp, abrupt sounds, which are formed 
by a rush of air into a vacuum, produced by a sudden separation of some 
closely joined pair of the oral organs. 

§ 7. Of vowels there are five, viz : a, e, ^, 6>, u; of conso- 
nants, including the gutturals and the English r, there are 19, 
viz : J, d, f, g, A, /, j, k, I, 7n, n, p, r^ s, t, v, w, y, z; and of 
the simple clicks there are three, which are here represented 
by c, §', and x. 

Rem. — The letter r is inserted in the Zulu alphabet with its English 
power, as above, and reckoned among the consonants. But the English 
sound of that letter (r) is not known in the Isizulu. It is introduced 
for use in writing words transferred from the English and other lan- 
guages, particularly proper names, in which that letter may occur and 
be regarded as indispensable to t?ie integrity of the transferred word 



4 POWERS OR SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 

Sect. 3. — Powers or Sounds of the Letters. 

§ 8. The general principle on which the Znln alphabet is 
constructed, is to assign uniformly one sound, value, or power, 
and only one, to each letter. (See § 5.) 

Where there are certain intermediate sounds,— as there naturally are 
in the Isizulu, as in most other languages, and especially in those 
which have never, or but lately, been reduced to writing, —for which 
no special letter is provided in the alphabet, these intermediate grades 
are arranged under one or the other of the two contiguous extremes to 
which a proper exponent is assigned. 

This remark applies to all the different kinds of sounds in the Isizulu, 
— as well to the vowels, clicks, and gutturals, as to the consonants, — of 
which, illustrations will occur as the sounds or powers of the different 
classes of letters are considered in their order. 



A.— VOWELS. 

1. Their Number, Origin and Value. 

§ 9. The number of vowel sounds which are marked, and 
for the notation of which special separate letters are used in 
the Zulu alphabet, are the five following : — a, 6, i, 6>, and ii. 

1. The vowel a is the purest, most easily produced, and 
most original of all the vowels, and indeed of all the sounds 
which enter into the composition of speech ; and on this ac- 
count it stands at the head of the alphabet. 

It consists of a mere emission of the voice from the throat 
through the unclosed lips, without the slightest interference 
from any of the organs of the mouth. 

Its value is that of the English letter a in father^ arh ; as 
in uhaha, amas% ttdade. 

2. The vowel i is the closest of all the vowels, and is pro- 
duced by a compressed emission of the voice between the 
tongue and roof of the mouth, while the oral aperture is hori- 
zontally extended to the greatest length. 

Its value is that of i in ravine^ or of ee in meet ; as in miiia^ 
sila. 

3. The vowel 'U^ which is just the opposite of ^, and the 
most obscure of all the vowels, is produced by bringing the 
opposite corners of the mouth into the closest approximation to 
each other, while the voice is emitted between the two lips. 

Its value is that of the English oo in pool^ hoot ; as in pula, 
imvida. 

Rem. 1. — These three vowels constitute so many fixed points on the 
extremes of the vowel region, the former, a, a pure, open, throat tone, 
being the limit on the border of mere breathing ; and the two letters i 
and u, which are called the close, consonantal vowels, and which easily 
pass over into the semi-vowels or semi-consonants, y and iv, being the 
limit on the consonantal border. 



THE VOWELS O 

Rem. 2.— The relation and position of these determinate vowels, a, i, 
and u, may be mathematically represented as standing at the three ex- 
tremes of a triangle ; thus, 

a 




§ 10. 1. The middle diphthongal vowel e is produced by an 
emission of the voice from the mouth in a midway position 
between that easy passive state in which a is produced, and 
that extreme of horizontal dilatation in which i is uttered. 

The components of e are, therefore, a and i; or thus, 
a-i=e. The sound is sometimes denoted in English and 
French by the two letters a and i conjoined as in fnaid, fail, 
gait; maison^ fraiche^ ixdais^ where the sound is that of ey 
in they^ or of a in late ; as in Isizulu, ivena^ etit, impela. 

2. The middle diphthongal vowel o is produced by an emis- 
sion of the voice from the mouth in a midway position be- 
tween that natural passive state in which a is uttered and that 
extreme of horizontal contraction in which lo is uttered. 

The components of o are, therefore, a and u; or thus, 
a-u—o. The sound is represented in French by a combina- 
tion of its elements au in faux^ an fait^ etc., which is the 
sound of English o in note, hone ; as in Isizulu, umoya, onyoTiO. 

Rem. 1. — The formation of the one medial vowel e from a-i, and o^ 
o from a-ii, is common in some of the Indo-European, and some othe^' 
languages, particularly in the Sanscrit, where a at the end of one word 
when followed by i in the beginning of the next, coalesces w4th it and 
gives e ; and a followed directly by u coalesces and gives o ; thus, wala 
with ishti becomes waleshti, and with ushtra, becomes ivaloshtra. 

Rem. 2. — Of this change of a-i into e, and of a-u to o, the Isizulu 
presents numberless examples, especially in the forming of the genitive 
case of nouns, and in the case of w^ords beginning ^vith i or u, preceded 
by prepositions terminating in a, as will be shown hereafter. 

Rem. 3. — This series of five vowels may be mathematically repre- 
sented by the following scheme :— 




The vowels e and i, on the left side of the diagram, are pi'oduced by 
dilating the oral aperture horizontally : and those on the right, o and ii, 
by contracting it ; the vowel a, at the head, being the point of begin- 
ning nearest the breath, and i and u, at the foot, the points of termina- 
tion nearest the consonants. 



6 LENGTH OF THE VOWELS. 

§ 11. There is, in Zulu, another vowel sound between a and 
6, and composed of them as e is composed of a and i. This 
sound, which is somewhat like that of <$, though shorter but 
hardly distinguishable from it by an English ear, is common in 
German, where it is represented by two dots over the a. 

Rem. — The same character might be employed in the Isizulu, were it 
advisable to specify that sound in distinction from that of e to which 
it is so nearly related. But it is thought to be sufficient in this lan- 
guage to mark and symbolize its five principal vowels, a, e, i, o, and u ; 
and that all the nicer shades may be conveniently arranged under 
these. 

2. Quantity or Length and Strength of the Vowels. 

§ 12. The vowel sounds of the Zulu language may be divided 
into three classes : long, short, and obscure, or medial. The 
difference between the long and the short vowels lies, not so 
much in the quality of the sound, (for in both cases it is radi- 
cally the same,) as in the strength or weakness, — which corres- 
ponds to the length or shortness as to time, — with which they 
are enunciated. The terms long and short, as applied to 
vowels in the Isizulu, refer, therefore, to that degree of loud- 
ness and distinctness of tone which is consequent upon strength 
of muscular action, rather than to any difference in quality or 
marked variety of sound depending upon the length of the 
vocal tube, which confines the vibrations, and upon the modifi- 
cation of which depends the generic character of the vowel 
sounds. 

1. The difference between a long and a short, in Isizulu, is the differ- 
ence between these two letters, or the sounds of them, as heard in 
English in the one case, in father, where it is long, and in the other 
case, in genera, dogma, where it is short. Thus, in udade, a is long ; 
but in umfula, it is short. 

2. The difference between o long and o short is as the difference be- 
tween a long and a short. The long o in Zulu is the sound of o in 
English bone, note ; the short o is of a weaker and quicker enunciation 
like o in mellow, burrow. Thus in uku bona and inkosi, o is long ; but 
in ubuso and intando, it is short. 

3. The difference between long e and short e, long i and short i, and 
between long u and short u, is similar to that between long a and short 
a, and between long and short o, as already illustrated. Thus the e in 
uku bema and wena is long, but in udade and lungile it is short ; the i 
in uku mila and mina is long, but m inkosi and ubani it is short ; and 
the u in imvula and imbuzi is long, but short in insimu and abantu. 

4. As a general rule sufficiently correct for all practical purposes, it 
may be said that the vowels of the accented syllables are long, while 
those of the unaccented syllables are short. 

§ 13. 1. The long vowels are not all of the same uniform 
length, neither are the short vowels all of the same uniform 
shortness. The difference in length between what are termed 
long and short is scarcely greater than that between what may 
be called the long and longest, or greater than that also between 
what may be called the short and shortest. 



DOL'BLE VOWELS OR DIPHTHONGS. 7 

2. Between the long and the short, there is another grade, a 
vowel sound of intermediate length, which is found for the 
most part under the secondary accent of long words, as the 
long vowels are found under the primary accent. 

3. The very short or obscure vowel sounds are found cliiefiy 
at the end of words, where they are often passed over so lightly 
as to become almost, and in some cases quite, imperceptible in 
ordinary speech. In such cases the true sound is generally 
ascertained only by a particular effort, or by taking the word 
in combination or inflection, where the sound may be known 
from analogy, or it becomes distinct by coming under the 
accent. Examples of this sort are found in such words as um- 
ngani^ inkosi^ etc., where, by suffixing a particle, as A'6, which 
carries the accent forward from the penult to the flnal syllable 
{rii or si^ etc.) ; thus, umnganike^ iiikosike^ etc.; or bv putting 
these nouns in the locative case ; thus, enlcosini, etc., the final 
vowel of the root is distinctly heard by reason of the accent 
which is placed upon it. 

4. The general difference between the long and short vowels 
requires, ordinarily, no particular mark of distinction, except, 
perhaps, in the Dictionary ; since those vowels are uniformly 
long which come under the primary accent, and that accent, in 
a correct system of dividing Zulu discourse into words, falls 
uniformly upon the penult. 

5. Much less do the minor differences of medial and obscure 
vowel sounds need to be marked as by diacritic points or other 
means affecting the alphabet or orthography of the language. 
As in naming the colors of the rainbow, it is deemed sufficient 
to select and designate the principal ; so in the series of vocalic 
and consonantal sounds, we must content ourselves with 
denoting those which are generic and fundamental, and leave 
the less important, subordinate shades, to arrange themselves 
under their respective principals. 

3. Double Yoioels or Diphthongs. 

§ 14. 1. It has been shown (§ 10), that the two vowel 
sounds, a-i^ sometimes combine and form another distinct 
vowel sound, the medial e ; and so also that the two vowels, 
a^ii^ combine and form the distinct medial vowel o. 

2. But sometimes two vowels are found coming together in 
Isizulu, both of which are so distinctly sounded that each is 
heard, and yet the two are so nicely blended that they both 
together form but one syllable, and thus constitute what are 
called diplithongs. 

3. Such are the compound or double vowels ai^ as heard in 
the negative Zulu adverbs ai and Tiai^ and in the nouns iigwai 



8 DOUBLE VOWELS OR DIPHTHONGS. 

and Ujoatai, wliere the compound, {ai), sounds something like 
i in the English word pine^ or more like the English affirma- 
tive adverb aye. 

4. Such also are the compound or double vowels au, as 
heard in the Zulu exclamation au ! and in the words gaula, 
unihau, where the compound {au) sounds like ow and on in 
the English words now, ounce. 

5. The compound ei, as heard in the Zulu proper name 
Uhehei, belongs to the same (diphthongal) class as ai and au, 
though in a modified degree, since its initial vowel e, is a 
derivative (from a-i) ; and hence the blending, the diphthon- 
gal character of the compound, is less perfect than in ai and 
au, as the difference, (on which the blending depends), between 
e and i is less than between a and i, and between a and u. 
(See §10.) 

Rem. — Here, in the examples ai, au, and ei, it will be observed that 
the union of sounds is between the pure throat vowel, (or else its near 
derivative, e), on the one extreme, and the consonantal vowels, i or ii, 
on the other extreme. 

§ 15. The union of two vowels in one unit of sound, so as to 
allow both to be heard in the blending, can occur only where 
the first of the two is either the pure open vowel a, or else one 
of its near derivatives {e or o), and the second of the two is 
one of the consonantal vowels, i or u ; as it is only on these 
conditions that the vocal organs can glide easily, and by a sin- 
gle operation, from an open to a closed 8tate, and carry, as it 
were, two vocalic sounds on one route, as a proper diphthong 
requires. Hence : — 

1. In such vocalic combinations as ao, in the Zulu words 
indao, %inyao, etc., where the second vowel {p) is closely 
related to the pure open vowel a, the difference between the 
two {ct and 6»), is not sufficient to allow of an easy melting into 
a diphthong. In pronouncing them a new jDOsition of the 
mouth and emission of the breath are required, which produce 
a sort of hiatus, or soft breathing, between the two. 

2. So, in such vocalic combinations as eu, in imheu, where 
the components, e and u, are from the two opposite series of 
vowels, as may be seen in the diagram (§ 10, Rem. 3), each 
vowel retains its own separate sound, and the combination 
never melts into a proper diphthong. 

Rem. 1. — Of the live permanent pairs of compound vowels now dis- 
cussed, the first two, ai and an, are regular original diphthongs. The 
difference between the two vowels of each pair is of the widest and 
purest kind ; and hence the blending is both easy and genuine. 

Rem. 2. — In the compounds ei, ao, and eu, the difference between 
the respective elements is not so great ; and, in an orthoepical and his- 
torical view, only one of them, ei, can be regarded as a diphthong. 
The other two pairs are mere combinations ; the one, ao, of a homoge- 
neous, and the other, eu, of a mixed character. 



EUPHONIC VOWEL-CHANGES. y 

4. Euphonic Vowel-changes. 

§ 16. 1. The concurrence of two vowels in two successive 
syllables or words, often occasions a hardness in pronunciation, 
generally called a hiatus ; to prevent or remove which, with the 
Isizulu, is always an object. 

2. The various methods or euphonic expedients to which 
this language resorts, to prevent a hiatus, may be reduced to 
two kinds ; — the first, and that which alone comes properly 
under consideration in connection with the vowels, is to dimin- 
ish the effort in speaking, by reducing the volume of sound, 
and lessening the number of syllables ; the second, the consid- 
eration of which comes more properly in connection with con- 
sonants, is to insert a letter or particle, and thus to prevent 
passing sharply from one abrupt sound to another, by first con- 
structing a bridge between them. 

3. The various changes to which Zulu vowels are subject, 
for the sake of euphony, are generally called contraction., 
crasis^ apostrophe or elision, and commutation^ to which, per- 
haps, may be added omission. 

I. Contraction^ in its most limited sense, or the uniting 
of two successive vowels, in the same word, into one sound, 
often occurs in the Isizulu, as : — 

1, In forming the genitive case of nouns, the initial vow^el 
of which is a, ^, or 0, where the genitive particle, a, is ab- 
sorbed ; as, ilizwe Idbantu^ {l-a-ahantu) ; tmifula loelo ^lizioe^ 
{w-a-elo) ; izinto zodacle^ {z-a-odade). And so, again, in 
forming the genitive case of any noun or pronoun, where the 
preform ative (of the limited noun) is a y as, amadoda enkosi^ 
(ct-a-inhosi) ; amazvji omlomo., {ct-a-iimlomo). 

2. In forming the relative pronoun, of which one element is 
always the relative particle a; as, from a-u : e from a-i ; 
eli from a-ili / aha from a-aba ; etc. And so, again, a per- 
sonal pronoun is sometimes absorbed by a relative, where the 
construction brings the two in juxtaposition, and each consists 
of a single vowel ; as, lununtu o ya hio m hona^ {ttmuntit a-n 
{—o)-it ya etc. ; into lununtu a yi honayo^ {into umuntu a-i 
( = e)-ii yi honayo ) ; etc. 

Rem. —This term — contraction— is often used in a general sense, to in- 
clude not only the kind of change above named and illustrated, but 
also such as are named under the following heads, as effected by erasis, 
ax^ostroplie, commutation, etc. 

11. Crasis., or the coalescence of the final and initial vowel 
of two successive words, so as to form but one sound, is an- 
other euphonic expedient of the Isizulu, to promote ease in 



10 APOSTEOPHE. 

speaking. It is found only in such words as are closely con- 
nected, and the first of which is generally of a subordinate im- 
port. Hence it most frequently occurs : — 

1. In the preposition or conjunction with the following 
noun ; as, oiormtntu for na umuntu ; nenhomo for na inkomo / 
namazwi for na amcczwi. 

2. In the compound tenses of verbs, between the pronouns 
and auxiliaries ; as, wa he tanda for wa he e tanda ; i hi fihile 
for ihe i fihile y uhu zwile for u he tc zwile / i si file for i se 
i file ; etc. 

III. Ajpostrophe^ the simple dropping or eliding of a vowel, 
generally from the end, but sometimes from the beginning, 
and sometimes from the middle, of a word, and indicating the 
elision generally by the mark of an apostrophe, is another 
expedient of the Isizulu, to prevent a hiatus. 

1. a. The general rule is to elide the final vowel of the pre- 
ceding word ; thus, s^ enza for si enza / ha y' enza for ha ya 
enza / 71^ aka for ni aha / zonh^ izinto for zonhe izinto / tin^ 
ahantu for Una ahantu. 

h. So also the final vowel, a^ of the prepositions, before 
proper names ; as, n) Amazulu for na Amazulu / also, Ohaha 
n^ Oniame for Ohaha na OTname. 

G. Before other words, however, requiring no capital letter 
at the beginning, the final vowel of the preposition is generally 
united, by crasis, with the initial vow^el of the following word 
(see § 16, 3, II) ; thus, nahantu for na ahantu. 

d. The final vowel of the preposition njenga is sometimes 
elided ; as, njeng^ izwi ; but it is more frequently united, by 
crasis, with the initial vowel of the next word ; as, njengom- 
fana for njenga %imfana / njengohiiha for njenga ukuha. 

2. (1) When an apostrophe is necessary, and the elision of 
the final vowel of the preceding word would cause ambiguity, 
the initial vowel of the word following is cut off by ayheresis / 
thus, leli ^gama, for leli igama, this letter ; lelo ^gama, that 
letter ; le ^nhomo^ this cow ; leyo ^nhomo, that cow. 

(2) There are other cases in which the initial vowel of a 
word is cut off ; as, 

{a.) In forming the genitive of proper names of persons, 
thus, izinhomo zi ha ^Mpande / ahantn ha ha ^Fakn. 

(h.) In the vocative case ; as, ^Nhosi ; ''Baha ; ^Mtcsi. 

(g.) In some other instances ; as, a he hiihidu for a he icm- 
h%du ; i he ^nye for i he inye. 

3. In the formation of compound words, the initial vowel of 
the second is dropped, and the two words are brought together 
and written as one, without any use of an apostrophe to mark 



COMMUTATION. 11 

the elision of the vowel ; thus, itinninimiczi^ from itmnini- 
umuzi^ owner of a kraal ; amaiizimtoti, from amami-amtoti^ 
name of a river = sweet water. 

4. Sometimes, in the formation of a word, two vowels are 
brought together in such a relation, or of such a nature, as to 
require one of them to be dropped, as from the middle of a 
word, in which case the elision is not marked by the use of the 
apostrophe ; thus, ahoni for ctbaoni ; isono for isio7io ; icbomi 
for lihuomi j isebi for isiehi. But in isiida^ fool, both vowels 
are retained and distinctly sounded. The same holds in some 
other words ; as, iida^ antelope, pi. amaula. 

lY. Commutation, or the changing of one vowel into 
another, or into a cognate semi-consonant, is another euphonic 
process for preventing hardness of pronunciation in the Isizulu. 

1. When two vowels come in juxtaposition, the first of 
which is one of the close consonantal class, i or u, or a deriva- 
tive, e or <9, and the second of the two is an open vowel, a, or a 
derivative, — the upward order as they stand in the diagram, 
(§ 10, Rem. 3) — it is generally the case that the first either 
thrusts in its cognate semi-consonant, y or w, in order to facili- 
tate the transition of the vocal organs from a close to an open 
state, or to furnish a support for the following vowels : or else, 
in rapid pronunciation, the first, close vowel (i or u), passes 
quite over into its cognate, y or w, — ia, ie, io, etc., becoming 
iya or ya, iye or ye, iyo or yo, etc.; and ^la, ue, no, etc., becom- 
ing iiwa or wa, uwe or we, uwo, or wo, etc. 

Examples of this principle, and of these changes, abound in the Isi- 
zulu, of which the following may serve as a sufficient illustration ; 
thus, ukwazi for uku azi ; ukwenza for uku enza ; inkomo yami for 
inkonio i ami ; umfana wami for uvifana u ami ; umuzi u wakiwe or 
umuzi ivakiive for umuzi u akiwe ; imizi i yakiwe or imizi yakiwe for 
imizi i akiwe ; umfana o walusa for umfana o alusa ; into e yapukile 
for into e apukile ; umuti o wapukile or umuti wapukile for umuti o 
apukile, etc., etc. 

2. The vowel a sometimes passes over, in a similar manner, 
into w before another vowel ; thus, ' amabele a nga wako ' for 
' a nga a ako ;' ' amakosi a wodwa ' or ' amakosi a odwa ' for 
' a aodwa.' 

3. It is on this principle that the pronouns which consist, 
radically, of a single vowel, as i, e, a, it, are often strengthened, 
and sometimes a hiatus is prevented, by their taking before 
them a cognate semi-consonant, y or i.o, making yi, ye, wa, wu, 
when their position or import requires strength of utterance, 
or they follow in close connection with another word ending, 
as all words do, in a vowel ; thus, ' u yi bonile ' instead of ' a i 



12 CONSONANTS. 

bonile ;' ' si wa bonile ' instead of ^ si a boiiile ;' ^ nga je 
tan da' instead of 'nga e tanda ;' 'wa ye tanda ' for ^wa e 
tanda,' contr. of ' wa be e tanda.' 

Rem. — But perspicuity and the genius of the language sometimes 
forbid elision, commutation, and coalescence ; or the taste or vocal 
organs of the people prefer some other method of avoiding a hard 
sound in some instances ; and in such cases, resort is had to the inser- 
tion of some euphonic particle of a consonantal character, a notice of 
which comes under the head of consonants. (See § 85.) 

Y. Omission of tlie vowel u. After the more flowing 
semi-vocal consonant m, the close vowel ti is often omitted, 
more especially when followed by other flowing consonants, as 
/, n, s, 2, and sometimes k, t, v ; thus, ' kazimla ' for ' kazim- 
ula ; ' nmne ' for ' umnne ;' ' nmsa ' for ' umnsa ;' ' umzi ' for 
' umnzi ;' ' emva ' for ' emuva.' 

Sometimes nothing is heard of the sound of u in these and 
similar examples ; sometimes it is brought out very full and 
distinct, especially where the accent comes upon it ; but in 
most cases the enunciation of it is short and suppressed, prob- 
ably something like the Sheva in Hebrew. 

Rem. — 1. Some tribes, as the Amazulu and their neighbors, make a 
much more frequent and full use of u, as above, than others. The rule 
with the former seems to be to retain it in full,; with the latter, to omit 
or suppress it. 

Rem. —2. At a much earlier period this vowel was doubtless in general 
use by all the tribes speaking cognate dialects, in all such examples as 
are now referred to, and in many other instances where it is omitted 
even by the Amazulu. Doubtless umu was originally the full and dis- 
tinct form of the incipient in all those nouns where we now find only 
um, making umufana, umuhila, etc. ; where we now hear simply um- 
fana, umhila, etc. 

Rem.— 3. In some of the cognates of the Isizulu, as the Sityuana, 
Swahili, and Rinika, the u, or its equivalent o, is still in general use in 
those incipients which correspond to um in Isizulu ; though the initial 
u has been worn off, or dropped, in those dialects, while it is retained 
here ; thus, in the Sityuana, we find molilo (mulilo), for the Zulu 
umlilo ; and in the Rinika, we find mulungu and muzi, where, in Isi- 
zulu, we have umlungu or umulungu, and umzi or umuzi, etc. 

B.— CONSONAJSTTS. 

1. Their JVumher and Yahie. 

§ 17. The number of consonants, including the two semi- 
vowels ^o and y, the gutturals h and .^, and the English ?^, is, in 
all, 19. (See § 7.) 

Rem. — Between some of the cognate consonants, as h and jp, g and k, 
f and V, different grades of intermediate sounds are often heard, 
which are arranged under their respective contiguous principals, where 
they will become naturalized and absorbed as the sounds and forms of 
the language become more fixed by writing. 



CONSONANTS. 13 

§ 18. The value or sound of the several consonants is as 
follows : — 

B is sounded as in English, ' but,' ' number ;' thus, ' ubaba,' 
' yebo.' Under it is ranked also a somewhat modified sound 
of this letter, nearly intermediate between the genuine h and^, 
as in ' koboza ' or ' kopoza.' This intermediate sound is heard 
also in other instances in which it comes nearer to jp than h / 
and hence it is reckoned under that letter, as in ' qapula ' or 
' qabula ;' ' popoza ' or ' boboza.' 

D has a clear, distinct sound, as in ' did ;' ' udade,' ' kodwa.' 
It also represents a sound nearly intermediate between d and t^ 
as in 'dunduzela' or 'tunduzela;' 'Udambuza' or ' Utam- 
buza.' 

i^has a clear, sharp sound, as in ' fate,' ' if ; ' thus, 'umfana,' 
'funda,' 'isifo.' There is also a sound intermediate betw^een 
that of f and v^ as in ' Uzafugana ' or ' Uzavukana ;' ' uku 
futa ' or ' uku vuta.' 

G is always hard, as in ' go,' ' game,' ' log ;' thus, ' igama,' 
' geza.' It is often preceded by the ringing nasal sound of n. 
There is also a sound intermediate between that of g and ^, as 
in 'Uzafugana' or ' Uzafukana;' 'uku ganda' or ' uku kanda ;' 
'Utugela' or 'Utukela.' 

H^ as Dohne says, "is more of a guttural than a simple 
aspirate as used in Zulu, because it is sounded with more force 
and depth than the English A, in hat^ hand. It is exactly like 
the German A in haiit. As a guttural it is allied to ^, ^, and 
rP In this work it is used not only, as formerly, in its simple 
aspirate value, as in hamha^ but also to represent the soft gut- 
tural sound that was, at one time, represented by r {R) ; as in 
Jiola^ formerly 7'ola, lead, a sound somewhat broader than the 
German ch^ in macht, and corresponding more to the guttural 
sound of ch and g in the Dutch words christen^ God^ goed. 

!. This letter, the common exclamation point, is used in this 
work to represent a peculiar, hard, rough guttural, which 
seems to be made by contracting the throat and giving the 
breath a forcible expulsion, at the same time modifying the 
sound with a tremulous motion of the epiglottis, as in leza, milk 
into the mouth ; Iweba^ scratch, as a cat with claws, or a child 
with finger nails ; itinlezo^ a switch. This word is generally 
used in the plural, imilezo, tails worn in war or dancing. 
Dohne describes this sound as " a hard guttural," "a kind of 
choking, very difllcult to describe and more so to utter." The 
same writer finds also a third sound of this difiicult kind, 
which he calls " a palato-guttural," or " guttural click," " a 
peculiar mixture of the palatal and guttural ;" as in mngahla^ 
or uragala, a kind of antelope ; umgehle, or umgele^ an ox 



14 CONSONANTS. 

with long spiral horns. But this sound is so rare, difficult and 
ill-defined that I introduce no new character for it. It may be 
represented, as above, by M^ or by /. Or it might be repre- 
sented by the exclamation point inverted, /, as umgaja. 

J is used to represent the same compound sound (dzK) which 
it represents in English ; as in Eng. judge ; in Zulu, inja^ dog; 
jdbula^ be glad. 

K is sounded as in keep, king ; thus, hodwa, only ; Jcala, 
cry. (See also G.) In words translated from other languages, 
it is used to represent the sound of c hard ; thus, ihameto, 
camel, ihati, cat. 

L has the soft liquid sound of the same letter in English ; 
thus, londa^ keep ; halct^ count ; lapa^ here. This letter is also 
combined with A, making 7^7, to represent a strongly aspirated 
or palatal 1-sound ; as in hlala^ sit ; isihlcmu^ -^yq ; inhle, nice. 
Combined with dh, making dhl, it represents a slightly aspi- 
rated, flat, dento-lingual sound, like the Welch 11^ rather lateral 
than palatal ; as in icJcu dhla, to eat ; indhlu, hut ; dhlala^ 
play. 

M is sounded as in ' man,' ' move ;' thus, ' mina,' ' puma,' 
' igama.' This letter is combined with many other consonants ; 
thus, m5, mf^ mn, as in 'kambe,' etc.^ 

iV^has, by itself, one pure simple sound, as in 'name,' 'nine,' 
' not ;' thus, ' kona,' ' unina,' ' umfana.' This letter, like m, is 
often combined with other consonants, where it has a half sup- 
pressed, ringing, nasal force, as in ' hand,' ' bank ;' thus, 
' linda,' ' konkota,' ' amanzi,' ' amanga,' etc., as below. 

There is (as above), a simple, elementary sound, which is 
allied to the sound of n^ and also to that of ^, though differing 
from both — the sound of n in ' conquer,' and of ng as in 
' song,' ' king.' The difference between this half suppressed, 
ringing, nasal sound, and the sound of ng, as heard in ' finger,' 
' angry,' etc., where we have the sound of g, in addition to the 
above ng (='fing-ger,' ' ang-gry,' etc.), may be more clearly 
seen by comparing the noun 'longer' (=one who longs), with 
the adjective 'longer' (= of greater length), the sound of ng 
being simple in the first, and compound in the second. In 
Isizulu this nasal sound is not found, as in English, alone : 
though its use in combination with other consonants is very 
common, especially with g ^ thus, in English, finger, angry, 
stronger, in Zulu, ngi, nga, Hang a, amanga. 

P has, in Zulu, the clear sound of the same letter in English, 
as in ' pin,' ' past ;' thus, ' ukupa,' ' pezu,' ' pila.' It is, how- 

* The combination of the nasal m and n with other consonants would 
be not unlike what we have in English were we to divide words so as 
to put the nasal at the beginning of a syllable ; thus, co-mhine, 
co-mfort, ea-mping, la-nding, do-nkey, iiioo-nshine. 



CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANTS. 15 

ever, used in some cases to represent a sound between the 
proper h and j!?, as 'nkn putuza' or ' uku butuza.' (See B.) 

R is adopted, in Zulu, to represent the English sound of that 
letter, in such words as are transferred wdth it ; though the 
sound is not heard in this language ; and it is with difficulty 
that the natives can learn to speak it. Thej always incline to 
give the sound of I in place of r when required to utter the 
latter. Formerly, this letter, R {r\ was used to represent gut- 
turals. (See II.) 

Rem.— The very common vernacular use of this sound (of r) in the 
Sityuana, cognate of the Isizulu, renders the introduction of it here the 
more advisable, as it may help prepare the way for an importation of 
words and an assimilation of the two dialects. 

xS'has generally the sharp hissing sound of the same letter in 
English, as in 'us,' 'saint;' thus, 'inkosi,' ' insika,' ' sonke.' 
In some cases it has a slight soft flat variation, approaching to 
the sound of 2 in nasal^ as in ' uku sungeza ' or ' uku 
zungeza.' 

7" is sounded as in 'tide,' 'net;' thus, 'tina,' ' tata,' ' tula.' 
There are intermediate sounds between this sound and that of 
d. (See D.) 

Eem. — T has been employed, sometimes, before s, to give the sharp 
hissing sound of that letter more prominence, thus ' nantsi,' 'intsika,' 
etc. ; but there is no necessity for this, and the system of orthography 
will be more simple and consistent by writing such examples without t, 
thus ' nansi,' 'insika,' ' insimbi,' etc. 

Y is sounded as in ' vine,' ' cave ;' thus, ' vala,' ' ukova.' 
This letter is also used to represent a sound between that of v 
and/. (Seei^.) 

iris always a consonant, or rather a semi-consonant, in Zulu, 
and has the English sound of that letter in ' way,' ' wise ;' thus, 
'wena,' 'wisa,' ' ukuwa.' 

Y is always a consonant, or rather, like w^ a semi-consonant, 
in Zulu, and has the English value of that letter in our system 
of orthography, as in ' yes,' ' you ;' thus, 'yena,' ' yonke,' 
' umoya.' 

Z is sounded as in ' zeal,' ' freeze ;' thus, ' ilizwi,' ' izinkomo.' 

2. Classification and Relationship of the Consonants. 

§ 19. 1. Consonants may be divided according to two meth- 
ods of description — according to the different organs of speech 
by which they are formed ; and according to the different 
degrees of influence which those organs have in the formation. 



16 CLASSIFICATIO:^r OF CONSONANTS. 

2. Considering the organs by whose action they are formed, 
the consonants in Isizuln, may be divided into four kinds : — 

{a). The Gutturals^ or throat sounds, h and // 

(b). The Palatals^ k and g ; ng and y ; 

(c). The Linguals^ t, d^ l^ 7i, r, s, and z ; 

(d). The Lahials,p^ h^f^ v, m, and w. 

Hem. — Some of these letters stand under a double category, 
being modiiied by some other organ than those from which 
they are named in the above classification. Thus, the letters t, 
d, Z, n, s, z, are sometimes called dentals ; k and g are some- 
times called gutturals ; I and r, palatals ; s and ^, sibilants / 
and m, n, and ng^ nasals. 

§ 20. 1. A more imjDortant classification is that which is 
based, not upon the organs of speech, but upon the extent of 
their influence in the formation of the consonants — upon the 
kind and degree of their compression, according to which a 
more or less perfect articulation is given to the consonantal 
sounds. 

2. The compression of the organs may be in kind either hard and 
slender, as in p, b, etc. ; or the occlusion of the organs may be soft and 
broad, as in /, v, etc. 

In the former, the action of the organs is always elastic and instanta- 
neous—a contact and a quick rebound. In the latter the action may be 
quick, but also protracted — a contact with a confused vanish, instead 
of a quick rebound. 

3. The hard slender elastic pressure of the organs gives that class of 
consonants called mutes, asp, b, t, d, k, and g, which cannot be sounded 
at all without the help of a vowel. 

4. The soft broad occlusion of the organs with a protracted vanish — 
regular in some cases, as in/, v; and irregular in others, as in I, r; 
or with a closing of the mouth and an emission of the breath through 
the nose, as in m, n, ng, — gives that class of consonants sometimes 
called se^ni-vowels, from their having, of themselves, an articulation 
which is accompanied with an imperfect sound ; as, I, m, n, ng, (in 
song), r, s, z. 

To this class belong also, as imperfect varieties, h and !. 

5. Five of these semi-vowels— Z, m, n, r, and ng—Sive distinguished 
by the name of liquids, from their coalescing easily with other conso- 
nants ; and the latter, ng, with the clicks — forming, as it were, but one 
sound. 



§ 21. A general description and classification of the kinds 
and modifications of both the vowels and consonants of the 
Isizulu, with an exhibition of some of their relations and con- 
trasts, from the pure open throat tone a to the most fixed, ex- 
terior, labial mutes, h and^, are presented in the following : — 



ALPHABETIC GRADATIONS. 



17 



Table of Alphabetic Gradations. 



Pure open 
Diphthongal or mixed 

Close consonantal 

Intermediate 

and 
transitional 
f flowing 



Liquid ^ 

I 


rolling- 
suppressed 


Hissing ( 

OR SIBILANT "j 


smooth 
crushed 


r 


compound 


Aspirated -{ 

I 


c'ogged 

soft 
rough 

expulsive 



Compressed f interior 

(with force ', 

and a quick ^ 

rebound) |^ exterior 



A 

E 
O 
I 

U 

Y 
W 

L 
R 
M 

N 

NG 
Z 

s 

zh 
sh 

=dzh 

\ ty=tsh 

3 dhL soft 

\ hi, sharp 

h 

I 

V 
F 
D 
T 
G 
K 
B 
P 



throat tone. 

r palatal middle tones. 

\ labial or extreme 
\ tones. 

i vocal consonants— 
V cognates, or echoes 
) of i and u. 

[ lingual. 1 



\ 
\ 

3 r 



nasal. 



1 

I 

I 

)- dental. 

I 



lingual. 

guttural 

labial. 

lingual. 

palatal. 

labial. 



.! 



^ 



1 ^ 



§ 22. 1. Both kinds of articulate sounds — the mutes and 
the semi-vowels — differ as to the degree of compression to 
which thej are subject in articulation ; and according to this 
difference they may be divided into two classes, called weak, 
as h, d, etc., and strong, as p, t, etc. 

2. The former, or loeah consonants, as h, d, when isolated 
and pronounced separate from the vowels, give a sound at the 
natural tone of the voice, and hence are sometimes called, 
sonant or vocal, and sometimes flat or soft. Of this class are 
5, d, g, V, z, zh, j {=dzh), dhl and h. 

3. The latter, or strong consonants, as p, t, etc., when iso- 
lated and pronounced separate from the vowels, give only the 
sound of a whisper ; and hence are sometimes called surd or 
whispering, and sometimes sharpj or hard. Of this class are 
]), t, k, f, s, sh, ty {=tsh), hi, and !. 

4. These sounds have a reciprocal correspondence to each other — the 
weak to the strong, and vice versa, being respectively formed by a 
similar disposition of the oi'gans, the several pairs of which are shown 
in the following— 

2 



Jo SCHEMH OF COGNATES. 

Scheme of cognates. 
( Weak or flat b d g v z zh j dhl h 

\ I I I I I I I I I 

( Strong or sharp . _ . p t k f s sh ty hi ! 

5. The remaining sounds, m, n, 7ig, I, r, w, and y. though produced 
by the voice, may also be distinctly uttered in a ivhisper ; and hence 
they are called neutral or intermediate consonants. 

§ 23. 1. In some cases, one nentral consonant will readily 
unite with another, or it will unite either with a flat or with a 
sharp consonant, in pronunciation. Hence the frequent recur- 
rence of such combinations as — ?nl, mn, Qnh^ mny y nw^ ny, nd^ 
ndw ; dw^ gio^ Jcw^ sw, etc. 

2. In some cases a flat consonant will unite in pronuncia- 
tion with a flat, and a sharj) with a sharp; as J {^dzh), ty 
•{ = tsh). These two are the only combinations of this class in 
the Isizulu. 

3. But a flat and a sharp, or a sharp and a flat consonant, 
cannot come together. Should any change or combination 
occur to bring them together in the same syllable, before they 
can be pronounced, either the flat must be changed to its cog- 
nate sharp, or the sharp must be changed to its cognate flat ; 
or the difliculty must be removed in some other w^ay, as by 
drop23ing one of the consonants, or introducing a vowel be- 
tw^een them. 

Eem. 1. — The law here exhibited in respect to the consonants, is 
called the Law of Accommodation. 

Eem. 2.— This general law is fixed and necessary, and holds good in 
all languages, the only difference being, that different languages 
change different letters, to remove the difficulty, when it occurs, — one 
accommodating the first letter to the second, and another, the second 
to the first. 

§ 24. 1. In most cases where combinations of consonants 
occur in the Isizulu, one of the components, and often both, 
or all, are semi-vowels, and generally of the neutral, if not also 
of the lingual class. 

2. And the letters of this class, which are found combining 
most frequently with others, are the nasals ?n and n — the labial 
liquid, 771, being always preferred and taken into combination 
by the labial mutes, h, ^;>, f, v / while the lingual liquid, n, is 
generally preferred by the lingual and palatal mutes, <f, t, g, 
and k. Hence the very common combinations m5, mp, nd, nt, 
etc. (See § 23, 1.) With t, however, either ??i or n may be 
found in combination, as in uhumtoti^ iLiniintu. 

Rem. 1. — Strictly grammatically considered, these two nasal liquids, 
m and w, are only a single sound which takes form according to the 
organ of the following mute, to soften down the mute's hard elastic 
nature— the form of m being taken before a labial, and of n before a 
lingual — the m being the more substantial of the two, and of the 
earlier origin. 



COMPATIBLE LETTERS. 19 

Kem. 2. — Hence, when, by the inflection of a word, the 
labial mnte, Z>, preceded by m, is changed to j {=dzh\ the lin- 
gual, <f, requires a change of the m to n^ or, as we say in a 
word, mJ changes to nj, as in Isidumhi^ Esidunjini ; ukii 
hamha, %iku hanjioa. 

25. Letters which cannot be pronounced together in the 
same syllable are called incompatible', while those which can 
be so pronounced are called compatible. 

A condensed view of the consonants of this latter class, 
where the letters in the central column — which are arranged 
alphabetically — may be preceded by any on a line before them, 
or followed by any on a line after them, is given in the follow- 
ing— 

Table of Compatible Letters. 

M may precede b which may precede rarely w 

m, n, ng.- ..- c which may precede w 

n d hi 

m f -- w 

m and n g w 

m h w 

m ! -_- w 

n j w 

m. 11 k 1, w 

m, n 1 w 

m b, f , k, 1, n, p, s, t, and v 

m n - d, g, k, s, t, w, y, z 

m p rarely w 

m, n, ng q w 

m . s w 

m, n t .- _ .s, w, y 

m V sometimes w 

d, g, h, !, 1, n, ) 

s, t, y, z, c, q, >• w 

and X ) 

m, n, ng x w 

n, t .. y w 

m, n z w 



Rem. — The use of w after J, 7?2, and p^ is rare and not very 
classical, being generally avoided by changing b into tyj m 
into ny; and p into ty. The combinations bw^ fw, and vw, 
are sometimes avoided by dropping w / the same holds in 
some cases with mw. 

§ 26. 1. Some of the consonants are called explosive^ and 
others continuous^ according as the air or breath is differently 
affected by the kind and degree of strength used in articula- 
tion. 

2. In the explosive class, to which belong p, 5, f, d, h, and g, the 
sound, isolated from a vowel, can not be prolonged, but must be cut 
off with a rebound of the organs, either sharply by the strong articula- 
tion, as in k, t, p ; or bluntly by the weak articulation, as in g, d, and b. 

3. In the continuous class, to which belong the rest of the consonants, 
the breath is transmitted more by degrees, and the sound, though iso- 
lated from the vowel, can be prolonged. 



20 COMBINATION'S OF CONSONANTS. 

§ 27. The mute, semi-mute, and semi- vocal consonants, 
liquids excepted, are sometimes divided into lene or simple, 
and aspirate. All the former, except s and ^, are also spoken 
of as explosive ; all the latter, as continuous. 

§ 28. J^ot having at command all the letters (type) used in 
printing Zuhi according to Dr. Lepsius' " Standard Alphabet," 
the consonantal scheme which was here given, as from his 
work, in my first edition, is omitted in this. 

3, Coinbinatioiis of ConsonoAits. 

§ 29. The present method of writiiig the Zulu language 
includes a large number of consonantal combinations. These 
may be divided into two classes — the combination of conso- 
nants with consonants, and the combination of consonants 
with clicks. The former, and their values, are chiefly as 
follows : — 

Bh, as in ' bheka,' ' see ' ; ' bhubha,' ' die.' 

Dhl, not known in English, is sometimes combined, in Zulu, 
with w, as in ' indhlwane.' 

Dw, as in English ' dwarf ;' Zulu, ' kodwa.' 

Fw, as in 'emafwini,' 'esifwini.' 

Gw., like gii in ' guava ;' as in ' g winy a.' 

HI is combined with w^ as in ' uku hlwa,' ' to go doAvn' ; 
* hlwita,' ' grab.' 

eA(;, as in 'jwiba;' 4jwabu.' 

Kw, as in 'kwela;' 'inkwali.' 

Lio^ as in ' isilwane,' ' uku Iwa.' 

J/J, as in ' uku hamba,'* ' Isidumbi.' 

3If as in 'abamfama,' 'uku mforiona.' 

Mk^ as in ' ukwamkela.' This compound may be resolved 
by inserting i^ between m and k; thus, 'ukwamukela.' (See 

§16,V.) 

Ml, as in 'zamla,' 'umpefumlo.' This sound may be re- 
solved like that of mk, as above. 

Mhl, as in ' ubumhlope ;' ' mhlaumbe.' 

Mn, as in ' ubumnandi.' 

Mny, as in ' ubumnyama.' 

Mp, as in ' insumpa,' ' inswempe ;' sounded as mj?, in the 
English words 'lamp,' 'hemp.' 

Ms, as in 'ngomso,' 'umsa.' This combination is often re- 
solved ; thus, ' ngomuso,' ' umusa.' (See § 16, Y.) 

MsJi, as in 'uku kumsha.' 

Mt, as in ' ubumtoti ;' like mt in ' tempt,' where the p is 
silent. 

Mv, as in ' inhlamva,' ' emva.' Sometimes this somid is 
resolved like that of ')nh and m<9. 



COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS. 21 

Wd^ as in ' taiida,' ' umsindisi ;' like nd in ' hand,' ' brand.' 

Ndhl^ as in ' amandlila,' ' ibandlila.' 

Nhl^ as in 'inhlanhla,' 'inlilaba.' 

Ndw^ as in ' tandwa,' ' umdwendwe.' 

Ngw^ as in ' sengwa,' ' lingwa,' ' igwangwa ;' like ngu in 
'langnage,' 'languor.' 

iVA', as in ' uku nkenketa ;' sounded like nlx^ in ' ink,' ' bank,' 
'sunk.' 

Nkw^ as in 'isinkwa;' like nqn in English 'inquire.' 

Ns^ as in ' pan si,' ' donsa.' 

Nt^ as in ' kanti,' ' umuntu ;' like nt in want. 

Nw^ as in ' umnwe ' or ' umunwe,' ' unwele.' 

Ny^ as in ' unin jaka,' ' uku kanya ;' like the same in ' Bu- 
nyan.' 

Nyw^ as in ' lunywa,' ' linywa.' 

Nz^ as in 'ukwenza,' 'ubunzima.' 

Sh is liere used to denote the simple elementary sound that 
was represented in the lirst edition of this work bj s with a 
circumflex over it ; as in English, ' shine,' ' shade ;' Zulu, 
'ishumi,' 'shuka.' 

Sliw^ as in 'shwila,' 'shwakama.' 

Sii^^ as in 'swela,' 'umsweswe.' 

Tw^ as in ' twala,' ' twesa,' as in Eng. ' twenty.' 

Ty is here used to denote a sound or sounds somewhat un- 
steady and various, denoted by different persons in different 
ways, as by the Eng. ch in ' church,' ' march ;' in Zulu by some 
by tcli^ by others by tsli^ being a compound sound, t and cA, or 
t and sh^ as in ' tyetya,' or ' tshetsha,' ' itye,' 'utyani.' In some 
words the sound here represented by ty (tsh) is like that of 
d {dy, dj or dzh,) in 'gradual,' ' educate.' Thus Dohne writes 
' tjetja,' ' t jona,' but ' itye,' ' utyani,' as above. 

Tyw^ as in 'utywala.' 
YiD^ as in 'emvwini.' 

YiD^ as in 'shiywa,' ' enhliziy weni.' 

Zw^ as in ' ukuzwa,' ' ilizwe.' 

§ 30. 1. There are, in Isizulu, a few instances, and only a 
few, in which a consonant is found double, or reduplicated. 
Such is the case with rn^ in the words uinmctngo and riinmoya^ 
where the incipient ends, and the root begins with the same 



2. One of the doubled consonants is generally dropped, however, in 
pronunciation, even by the best speakers ; so much so, that the fact of 
a reduplication is learned, not from ever hearing a distinct repetition 
of the consonant, but from the laws of inflection, or of derivation. 
(See § 47, Rem. 2.) 



22 EUPHONIC PRINCIPLES. 

Jf.. Eujphony and Consonantal Changes. 

§ 31. 1. Enpliony, or a regard for easy and agreeable sounds 
and the harmony of words, has no small influence on the 
grammar of the Isizulu ; as it has, indeed, upon most other 
languages in their youth, or where for want of books, or from 
some other cause, a language is addressed more to the ear than 
to the eye. 

2. As with the Zulu vowels, so, perhaps, more with the con- 
sonants, certain euphonic principles are found operating, in 
various ways, to produce euphonic changes. 

§ 32. 1. The great object, and general law of these changes, 
is to produce fafcility of utterance by a proper intermixture of 
vocalic and liquid sounds on the one hand, and of mute conso- 
nants on the other. 

2. The two faults opposed to euphony are a superabundance of vowels 
and liquids, producing too great softness ; and a superabundance of 
consonants, producing too great harshness. Perhaps few languages 
have a better claim than the Isizulu to the character of a happy mean. 

3. As something is always left to the taste, caprice, or 
fashion of a people, in their regard for euphony, different 
nations are often found to have certain euphonic codes, in 
some respects peculiar each to their own language 

(«.) Euphonic changes may therefore, be either necessary^ as 
occasioned by the general principles of euphony ; or accidental^ 
as occasioned by the sense of euphony in a particular people. 

(5.) Both kinds, again, are either external^ being perceived 
from a comparison with kindred dialects, or with an original 
language ; or internal^ appearing in the very structure of a 
particular language, by itself considered. 

Rem. — A careful study of the system of articulate sounds, and of the 
euphonic changes required in the Isizulu, will show that many of those 
changes are both internal and necessary ; and that all of them are 
made, not by any arbitrary process, but in full harmony with the phys- 
iological character of sound. 

§ 33. 1. It has been remarked already (§ 25), that certain 
combinations are incompatible. Another fact has been no- 
ticed also (§24), that, on the other hand, there are certain 
combinations, the letters or sounds of which have for each 
other a peculiar attraction or affinity, such as m for the series 
^,^9, etc., and n for the series d, t, etc?.; hence, lolyanibo makes 
the plural in izimhanibo, while icti makes the plural in izinti. 

2. Let it be further added here, that certain other combinations are 
unstable, having a tendency, when they occur, to undergo a change. 
As shown by Dr. Latham :— The ew, in new, is a sample of an unstable 
combination in English ; and the tendency in pronouncing is to change 



KITPHONIC PRINCIPLES. 23 

the word into noo, or into iiyoo. or else into nyeiv. So when y is pre- 
ceded by t, d, or s, there arises another unstable combination, and the 
tendency is to pronounce sya as .s7ia, and tya as cha (in Charles), and as 
Ja, i. e., to change ty into tsh and dzh. This is seen in the pronuncia- 
tion, in English, of such words as sure, picture, verdure, where the u is 
not sounded as oo, but as yoo. Hence the above words are often pro- 
nounced shoor, pictshoor, verjoor or verdzhoor. 

3. In the various modifications tlirough which words pass, 
in the Isiznki, as in the derivation of one word from another, 
or in the formation of the locative case of nonns or the passive 
voice of verbs, certain changes are often made in the combin- 
ation or juxtaposition of sounds, which, in their turn, have a 
tendency to induce other changes, and thus to cause one letter, 
or a combination of letters, to give way entirely to another. 

As an example of these changes, and a practical illustration 
of these principles in the Isizulu, take the verb hamha, catch, 
and its passive form, hanjwa^ be caught. Here the first 
change in the active, to form the passive, is to insert u before 
the final a, which changes at once (according to § 16, lY), into 
its cognate semi-consonant lo^ making hamhioa. But from the 
table of compatible letters (see § 25, and E,em.), it appears that 
the combination hio is incompatible ; hence h is changed into 
zh and preceded by <:Z, making dzh {=j), which gives the word 
haindzhwa (bamjioa). But here we are met with another 
difiicult combination, mdzh {mj) ; and hence, again, the m is 
changed to n, for which (§ 24), the d has a strong aflinity, thus 
making handzhwa^ i. e., hcuijiva. Hence, in forming the pas- 
sive of this verb, we have really no less than five or six 
changes, of which all but the first and last may be set down as 
euphonic or physiological, and all are summed up by saying 
mh is changed into nj. 

Ke:v[. 1. — Sometimes the infiection or modification of a word 
brings a combination, or a single letter into an unstable rather 
than a strictly incompatible relation with another sound, in 
which case the euphonic change may be made, or it may not 
be made. Thus the locative case of Isiduinhi^ may be either 
Esidunjini^ or Esiduinlnni^ though more properly the former. 

Rem. 2. — Out of the real necessity of a permutation of con- 
sonants in certain cases, as in that of hamba to 'hanjwa to 
secure compatibility or promote stability and euphony, there 
seems to have arisen, as by attraction, the general rule and 
practice of introducing a permutation of the same consonants, 
whenever the word containing them is inflected, though the 
inflection should not aflect them directly by bringing them 
into incompatible or unstable relations. Thus, according to 
the most common and classic use, in forming the passive voice 
of hicmhida^ the 7'ah is changed into nj^ as in hamha, making 
kimjidvKt ; though the combination, m^, is not, in this case, 
directly affected by the introduction of vj before final a. 



2J: EUPHONIC LETTERS. 

Eem. 8. — It should be observed, however, that this euphonic 
permutation of consonants, whether by attraction or otherwise, 
does not extend to the first syllable of the root of a word ; 
thus, iikii mha makes the passive voice %iku inhiwa, and not 
uhu njiwa nor ^cku njwa. (See § 34.) 

§ 34. The euphonic consonantal changes, now discussed, 
" Palatizations," as Dr. Bleek calls them, of which a single 
example has just been given, are often found in forming the 
passive voice from the active form ; in forming the locative 
case from the nominative form ; and in changing a noun or 
adjective of the ordinary form to a diminutive, — all Avhich will 
be more fully noticed in their several proper places. They are 
chiefly as follows : — 

B into ty ; thus, iiigubo^ engutyeni ; or into j', as hiiMsa, 
hujiswa. 

M, except in the first syllable of a root, into ny ; as, luma, 
lunywa^ umlomo^ emlonyeni. 

'^ into 7iy y as, imitioanoy^ %iintwanyana. 

MB into nj / thus, intamho^ entanjeni ; hmnha^ hanjwa. 

MP into nty, except in the first syllable of a root ; as, in- 
suinpa, insimtyana ; mjpomjpoza^ mpontyozwa. 

ND into nj^ sometimes ; thus, impande, impanjana. 

P into ty ; thus, isibojjo^ esibotyeni. 

This palatization of labial sounds, as Bleek says, never 
affects the first consonant of the root, though, if the passive 
ending stands immediately after it, an approach to palatization 
is made by inserting i before w / thus, ya^ give jpiwa^ be given. 
But in forming the locative case the palatization is not so uni- 
versal as in forming the passive voice of the verb. 

5. Euphonic Letters. 

§ 35. There is a class of letters, as h^ ng, s, w, and y, which 
are often used for no other purpose than to facilitate utterance 
by preventing a disagreeable harshness ; or to prevent the 
coalescence of two vowels, or the loss of a vowel, which per- 
spicuity requires to be preserved and kept separate. And to 
this class of letters the term eiiplwnic is particularly appro- 
priate. 

1. ^is sometimes used to harden and preserve a vowel, as : — 

(a.) Before the pronoun ii, second person singular, accusative, mak- 
ing i^u ; 9,nd. sometimes the nominative is thus hardened, making leu, 
when preceded by tlie negative particle a. 

(b.) The pronoun a (in place of u) third person singular, first class, 
and tlie pronoun a, third person plural, second class, are sometimes 
hardened by k, especially in the nominative, when preceded by the 
negative a, or by the imperative auxiliary ma. 

(c.) The genitive particle, a, is hardened by k, when used before a 
proper noun, with wliose initial vowel it is not allowed to unite ; as, 
abatitu ba ka 'Mpaiide, inkomo ka ^Faku. 



EUPHONIC LETTERS. 25 

2. TFis often used in the same manner as Ti^ and sometimes 
instead of it, to give hardness and prominence to a vowel, as : — 

(a.) Before the pronoun ii, second person singular, nominative ; thus, 
a wu tandi, instead of a ku tandi ; and either, instead of the simpler 
form, a u tandi. 

(b.) Before the pronoun a, third person plural, second class ; and the 
pronoun u, third person singular, sixth class, making wa, ivu, etc. 

3. Y is often used before its cognate vowel i, and some- 
times before e, to give it hardness and prominence, like k and 
w before a and ti.. (See also below, 4, c.) 

4. a. Ng is often nsed to give hardness and prominence to a 
vowel, and also to prevent the occurring of a hiatus, in certain 
cases, between two contiguous words, as : — 

(a.) To harden the negative a, making nga ; thus, si nga tandi ; a si 
tandanga. 

(5.) To prevent a hiatus between a pronominal subject and a nominal 
or pronominal predicate ; thus, ku ngumuntu, instead of ku umuntu ; 
ku ngdbantu ; ha ngamadoda. 

(c.) To give an easy, graceful transition from one word to another, in 
some other cases, as from a verb in the passive voice to the efficient 
agent which immediately follows ; thus, kivenziive ngabantu* 

h. The euphonic ?./; is sometimes used instead of 7ig before 
nouns predicate (see '(J),' above); and in some other cases, 
where the noun is impersonal and its initial vowel is ic ; as Jcti 
wuto / hu iDiilwandlile. 

G. The euphonic y is used in the same manner and for the 
same purpose as ng and v: before nouns predicate, and before 
the efficient agent, sometimes, after passive verbs — ij being 
generallv used before nouns whose initial vowel is i^ and the 
pronouns derived from such nouns ; while ng is generally 
used, and sometimes %o^ before other nouns ; thus, hu yinkomo; 
Ictc yihashi. 

5. aS' is used in the negative formula a si ; as, a si ngicye / 
a si yo ; and other similar constructions ; and also before 
nouns in the locative case, when that case is preceded by a 
pronoun or preposition, between the final vowel of which and 
the initial of the locative, a hiatus would occur, without the 
use of some euphonic expedient ; thus, ha sensimini y it sezul- 
wini na semhlaheni. 

Rem. l.^The eu[)honics ng, s. w, and y, often occupy the place, and 
perform the office, of the English substantive verb to be, and hence 
might be called euphonic copulative letters or particles ; thus, ku ngu- 
muntu, it (is) a person ; ku yinkomo, it (is) a cow ; ba semfuleni, they 
(are) at the river. 

Rem, 2. — Certain letters of a pronominal character, and used simply 
to point out certain grammatical relations, as b in bake {abantu bake) ; 

* Dr. Bleek thinks ng is a " suppressed " form of ngi, which he calls 
the '• preposition of identity or causality."'—" Comp. Grammar,'* p. 150. 



26 CLICKS. 

I in lake (izivilake); etc., have sometimes been called euphonic. But 
the application of this term to such letters, or to letters of such an 
office, is of very doubtful propriety. The term preformative, or frag- 
mentary genitive pronoun, is a better designation of their office and 
character. (See § 159.) 

§ 36. When the incipient of a noun terminates in m or in n, 
and the root of an adjective, a^Teeing with the noun, does not 
begin in one of these letters, one of them (either m or n) is 
generally introduced between the root and the prefix of the 
adjective. This is evidently done, partly for euphony ; partly 
by what may be called attraction ; and partly, perhaps, for 
greater precision and perspicuity. 

The particular letter to be thus inserted, whether m or n, is deter- 
mined by the initial consonant of the (root of the) adjective ; the labials, 
as before stated (§ 24), having an affinity for m, and the Unguals for n ; 
thus, into embi ; into encle ; isibopo eside ; umfana omkulu ; inkomo 
enkulu ; igama elikulu. 

C— CLICKS. 

§ 37. The clicks (clucks, or clacks), are a kind of sound, un- 
known, as a part of human speech, except in Southern Africa ; 
and of such a peculiar nature, that a foreigner linds it some- 
what difficult to make or describe them. Indeed, they can be 
made correctly, and with ease, and properly combined with 
other sounds, by very few except the natives themselves, or 
those who learn this language in early life. But they may be 
described with sufficient accuracy for the purpose before us. 

§ 38. The clicks, as found in Isizulu, may be divided into 
three general classes, according to the organs chiefly employed 
in making them — the dental^ the jjolatal^ and the lateral 
clicks. 

1. The dental dich is made by placing the tip of the tongue 
firmly against the upper front teeth, slightly touching the 
under teeth also, and then withdrawing it suddenly with a 
strong suction. The sound may be made by a European to 
attract the attention of a pet animal, or by the fondling mother 
to make her infant smile, taking care to employ only the 
tongue and front teeth, and not the lips. 

The letter c is used to represent this click, as in ' cela,' 
' incwadi,' ' amacala.' 

2. The palatal clich, which is represented by q is so called 
from its being made by pressing the tongue, in a fiat or ex- 
tended position, firmly against the roof of the mouth, in the 
cavity of the palate, and then withdrawing it suddenly, so as 
to produce a sharp smack, clack, or click ; as in ' quma,' 
' uqobo,' ' amaqanda.' 

3. The lateral clicJc, represented by x, is so called from its 
being made by the tongue in conjunction with the double 



CLICKS. 



27 



teeth, keeping the jaws a little apart, while a suction is effected 
bj the tongne and teeth, such as a rider sometimes makes to 
urge on his horse; as in 'xapa,' ' Utixo,' 'inxenye,' ' amaxolo.' 
§ 39. Each general class of clicks has at least three slight 
modifications, which, according to the kind of modification, 
may be called the nasal, the guttural, and the iiaso-guttural. 

1. These modifications are represented, the nasal by n ; the 
guttural by g ; and the naso-guttural by ng / — prefixed, respec- 
tively, to the character (c, q, or x) which represents the simple 
click. (See § 40.) 

2. The use of n is to give the simple click a sort of nasal 
modification ; the use of g, to flatten it : and the use of ng to 
give the simple click a kind of nasal flattened modification. 

Rem. — What are here called modified clicks are but varieties of the 
respective classes of simple clicks ; and should be regarded, not so 
much a combination of sounds by the addition of a new sound, as 
another form of the same sound, or rather, as a new monosound, mod- 
erately varying from the principal sound, called the simple click —the 
simple click being so called more from its being a common head of 
the class, than from its being any more of a monosound than what are 
called the modified clicks. 

§ 40. Tlie three classes of clicks, and the three several modi- 
fications of the same, with examples of each, are given in the 
following : — 

Table of Clicks. 



SIMPLE. 


NASAL. 


GUTTURAL. 


NASO-GUTTUEAL. 


J 


c, as in 


nc, as in 


gc, as in 


ngc, as in 


< 


ca 


ncela 


gcina 


ngcwanga 




cela 


ncenga 


umgcazo 


ingcenge 


-" 


^ isicoco 


unmcamo 


gcoba 


ngcola 


J* 


q, as in 


nq, as in 


gq, as in 


ngq, as in 


t ^ 


qa 


nquma 


gqaduka 


qengqa 


< 


uqobo 


amanqe 


amagqagqa 


ungqoqwane 


< 


^ umqele 


isinqamu 


gquma 


ingqulwani 


, ■; 


^ X, as in 


nx, as in 


gx, as in 


ngx, as in 


< 

^ J 


xa 


nxamela 


gxeka 


umungxiba 


i5 ^ 


ixiba 


amanxeba 


gxila 


ingxangxa 


< 


amaxolo 


nxapa 


isigxa 


ingxota 



§ 41. The only combination of consonants with clicks, aside 
from those already given, is that in which the different varie- 



28 GENERAL REMARKS. 

ties are sometimes followed bj w / thus, cwila, ingcwele, long- 
qoqwane. 

§ 42. There are some fluctuations in the use of the clicks, 
especially in some words, and among different tribes. Some 
say hinqa^ others Mnca ; some xuga^ others quga ; at one 
time ca, at another qa / at one time we seem to hear ngqoha, 
at another gqoka^ and at another only qoka / and so ngqiba, 
gqiha^ or qiha. But the fluctuation is not very great, and 
nothing different from what is sometimes heard among the 
consonants and vowels. 

§ 43. Many of the words in which the clicks are found are 
evidently onomatopoetic in their origin. Such are the words 
' qabula,' snap ; ' cocoma,' hop ; ' cinsa,' spirt ; ' coboza,' crush ; 
' cokozela,' parley ; ' congozela,' hobble ; ' qaqamba,' ache, 
throb ; ' qaqazela,' shiver, tremble ; uqoqoqo,' the trachea ; 
' xoxa,' converse together ; ' xapa,' lap as dogs ; ' xapazela,' 
bubble up or boil. 

Rem. 1. — In this connection it may be remarked that many 
of the words in which the gutturals h and ! are found, are also 
onomatopoetic. Such are ' huzula ' and ' lebula,' tear ; ' he- 
beza,' drive away locusts by a rustling noise ; ' haha,' eat 
greedily ; ' iholo,' roughness ; ' honqa,' snore ; ' hoza,' gurgle ; 
' !weba,' tear ; ' !eza,' to milk into the mouth ; ' umlezo,' a 
switch. 

Rem. 2. — There are many other words in the Isizulu besides those 
containing a click or a guttural, which bear evident marks of an ono- 
matopoetic origin, such as 'lala,' lie down, sleep; ' bubula,' moan; 
'duduzela.' console; ' futa,' puff; ' sonta,' twist; ' dengezela,' totter; 
' gidiza,' tickle ; ' isizunguzane,' giddiness. 



CHAPTER 11. 
SYLLABLES AND WORDS : 

OR THE 

UNION OF SOUNDS AND THE DIVISION OF DISCOURSE. 

Sect. 1. — General Remarhs. 

§ 44. 1. The first part of Zulu Grammar, which is designed 
to comprise an exhibition of the elementary facts and princi- 
ples of the language, must treat not only of the sounds of the 
language separately considered, but also of the connecting of 
these sounds into syllables and words. It must state the gen- 
eral principles on which the language should be reduced to 
writing, and exhibit and illustrate its laws for the forming of 
its syllables and for the proper division of its discourse into 
words. 



SYLLABLES. 29* 

2. In a language already, perhaps ages ago, reduced to order and 
committed to writing, and in which the limits of words, or the mode of 
dividing discourse, as well as the mere writing of words, has been 
long since fixed by either principle, or by accident and usage ; the sum 
of this part of grammar — orthography— is merely and briefly to present 
the common established custom— orthographical usage — whatever it 
may be. 

3. But in a language newly reduced, there is no long established 
usage, whether philosophical, or anomalous and absurd, to be followed. 
In these circumstances, fleeting sounds must be caught and symbolized; 
and not only this, but tnat law also, which both the genius of the lan- 
guage and general philosophical grammar recommend, for connecting 
and dividing these sounds into syllables and words, must be stated and 
applied, together with the application of the chosen symbols— and all 
without either aid or embarrassment from well established custom. 

Sect. 2. — Syllctbles. 

§ 45. 1. A syllable is a simple or a compound sound, pro- 
nounced by a single impulse of the voice ; as, «, ha^ ku^ si. 

2. Sometimes a syllable is, of itself, significant ; and then it 
constitutes a word ; as, qa^ no ; sa, yet ; he, be ; si, we ; ku, it ; 
ngi, I, me. 

3. In other cases a syllable is not, by itself, significant ; and 
hence it then forms but part of a word ; thus, ta, in tanda, 
having no significance alone, forms but a part of the word 
tanda. 

§ 46. 1. The division of words into syllables may be con- 
sidered in two aspects, viz : in respect to johonetics, and in re- 
spect to etymology. 

2. As a general rule, a word should, doubtless, be divided 
into syllables, according to the divisions which those good 
speakers to whom the language is vernacular generally make 
in pronouncing it. 

3. Observing the application of this principle to the Isizulu, 
and noticing the fact also that all words in this language ter- 
minate in a vowel, we have the general law, so to divide all 
words as to make open syllables, or make all syllables end in a 
vowel ; thus, ta-nda, ha-niba, a-ha-ntu, ci-ma-nga, i-nko-si, 
i-2i-nko-ino, u-nnfu-la, etc. 

Rem. 1. — This rule of dividing— putting m, n, etc., with the consonant 
following; thus, ta-nda, lia-mba, u-mfu-la, etc., instead of with the 
antecedent vowel, accords not only with the pronunciation of the 
people, but also with the principle before stated (§24), that the nature 
and ofiice of these liquids is to unite with, and soften down, the hard 
mute by which they are followed— the labial mutes ( p and 6) having 
an affinity for the labial semi- vow el m ; and the lingual mutes {t and d), 
for the lingual semi-vowel n. 

Rem. 2. — That even m and n final, in the incipients of nouns, belong 
phonetically, though not etymologically, to the root of the word, i. e., 
to the following, and not to the antecedent syllable, is evident not only 
from the above remarks, but also from the form of the vocative. For 



30 WORDS. 

in all those instances in which the noun's incipient consists of two 
letters, the second being m or n, in forming the vocative, which is done 
by dropping the initial vowel, the remaining letter, m or n, is thrown 
by necessity into the following syllable ; thus, 'Mpande, ^Nkosi. 

§ 47. Etymologically considered, those nouns whose incipi- 
ents terminate in ^n or n (as, in, ^m, izin, izim, um), are 
divided so as to give those consonants to the preceding, rather 
than to the following syllable ; thus, in-ko-si, pi. a-ma-JcQsi / 
um-fii-la, pi. i-mi-fula ', u-ba-mho, pi. i-zim-ba-mbo j in-ho-mo. 

Rem. 1. — As the phonetic rule takes the precedence of the etymologi- 
cal in speaking, so it should in reading, and, doubtless, also in spelling ; 
thus, i-nko-si, u-mfu-la, i-zi-mbe-nge ; though for analytic and gram- 
matical purposes, the etymological rule must have its place. 

Eem. 2. — In a few instances, where there is a reduplication of a con- 
sonant, as in ummango, ummoya, (see § 30), the incipient terminates in a 
consonant, and the root also commences in the same ; though in pro- 
nunciation, or phonetically considered, as before remarked (§ 30), only 
one of these letters is really heard ; thus, ii-ma-ngo, u-mo-ya. 

§ 48. In every word, there are as many syllables as there are 
separate vowel sounds and diphthongs ; thus, i-ga-ma; a-ba- 
fa-nctj gau-la ^ ic-gwai. 

Rem. —Although every Zulu word really and properly ends in a 
vowel, yet in rapid or careless pronunciation, the final vowel is some- 
times dropped, especially after 7)i, n, and s ; thus, intam'bam\ Udingan\ 
inkos\ etc. 

Sect. 3. — Words. 

§ 49. A word, in respect to orthography, is one or more 
syllables written together, as the sign of some idea, or of some 
relation of ideas ; as, tanda, love ; abantu, people ; ngi, I ; 
ba, they ; qa, no ; yebo, yes. 

Rem. 1. — As one or more sounds, pronounced together by a single 
effort of the voice, constitute a syllable ; so one or more syllables com- 
bined, and having some significance, separate force, or meaning, con- 
stitute a word. Words properly combined produce a sentence ; and 
sentences, properly comoined, make speech or discourse. 

Rem. 2. — Discourse, then, is divided into sentences according to 
periods, or such a number of words, as, taken together, make complete 
sense ; and sentences are divided into words according to the signifi- 
cance of their syllables, or the number of separate portions which 
have some force or meaning of their own. 

" Here, however, the power of dividing speech into significant por- 
tions ends ; for though words are made up of syllables, and syllables of 
letters, yet these two last subdivisions relate wholly to the sound, and 
not to the signification. A syllable or letter may possibly be signifi- 
cant, as the English pronouns I and me ; but then they become icords, 
and are so to be treated in the construction of a sentence." — Ency. Met., 
Art. General Grammar. 

Rem. 3.— There is so much of plain, important truth and force in the 
last two sentences of a paragraph on this subject in " A Grammatical 
Note on the Gwaniba Language," by a Swiss missionary. Rev. Paul 



SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 31 

Bertlioud, all so briefly stated, and as pertinent to the Zulu and other 
Bantu languages as to the Gwamba, that I am constrained to make the 
following quotation : — 

'•Most Etiglish authors incorporate in one word the verb, its aux- 
iliary, its pronoun subject, and, if there is one, its objective pronoun. 
Grout, however, did not do so ; and, as a rule, French and German 
authors do not do it either. We think the latter are right, and we 
could prove it : but a discussion on the matter, would be here out of 
place. We can only say that if this system of orthography were 
adopted in English, we would, instead of a sentence like ' he had not 
told it you,' have the big word hehadnottoldityou. There is no more 
reason to apply it to Bantu than to European languages." 

§ 50. a. Some words, as tlie substantives, verbs, and adjec- 
tives, and the adverbs derived from these, express a notion or 
idea ; and hence are called notio/ial, or essential, and some- 
times primary words. 

h. Other words, as the pronouns, numerals, prepositions, 
conjunctions, and the adverbs derived from these, together 
with the auxiliary verbs, are used to express the different rela- 
tions of ideas ; and hence are called relational, or formal, and 
sometimes secondary words. 

§ 51. 1. The general orthographic rule for the writing of 
the Isizulu, as for the writing of other languages, is to give 
each word, whether essential or formal, a distinct position of 
its own, separate from each other word in the sentence. 

2. When however, one word or particle has such influence 
upon another before it, as to carry its accent forward from its 
ordinary position — the penultimate — to the final syllable, the 
two words are joined in writing, as they are in pronunciation ; 
thus, liainhani {hamba-ni), go ye ; to funani na f {to funa-ni 
na f), you seek what ? hamhake {hamha-he), go then. 

3. So also in compound words — where the principal accent 
is thrown upon the penultimate of the second of the com- 
pound, they are written together as a simple word; thus, 

Umzirakulu / Itafamasi ; tTmnihaziiirUdu. 

Eem. — Other exceptions to the general rule are such as grow out of 
the omission or contraction of syllables and words, the character and 
extent of which are noticed in the next section. 



Sect. '4. — Omission and Contraction of Syllables and Words. 

§ 52. General RE:NLiRK. — Perhaps no language, except 
among those which have never been reduced to writing, 
abounds in the omission and contraction of syllables and words 
to such an extent as the Isizulu. The diversity of its forms 
and phrases, according as all the sounds are fully and distinctly 
uttered, or not, seems almost endless. This characteristic has 
grown chiefly out of two causes — the absence of written char- 



32 SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 

acters and standards to give a fixed nniformitj to words 
and modes of expression ; and the disposition of the people, 
the lower classes in particular, to seek ease of utterance by 
diminishing the volume of sound, and by neglecting to give a 
distinct enunciation to all the sounds which they pretend to 
utter. 

§ 53. Among the omissions and contractions of syllables and 
words, in which the Isizulu abounds, the following are the 
most common : — 

1. In compound tenses, the auxiliary sometimes drops its 
final vowel, and unites with the following pronoun ; thus, 
^u bu tanda' for ' ube u tanda ;' 'i si file' for 'i se i file.' 
Sometimes the auxiliary simply absorbs the following pronoun 
when it consists of a single vowel; thus, 'a be tanda' for 
' a be e tanda.' 

2. The personal pronoun is sometimes omitted before the 
auxiliary, in compound tenses ; thus, ' be ngi tanda ' for ^ ngi 
be ngi tanda ;' ' ke ngi tanda ' for ' ngi ke ngi tanda ;' ' se ngi 
tandile ' for ' ngi se ngi tandile.' 

3. The pronoun a is generally absorbed when it comes be- 
fore verbs beginning with a vowel ; thus, ' anda ' for ' a anda ;' 
^ enza' for ' a enza ;' ' osa ' for ' a osa.' So the pronoun e / thus 
' akile ' for ' e akile ;' ' enzile ' for ' e enzile ;' ' osile ' for 
' e osile.' 

. 4. The relative pronoun or particle a generally absorbs a 
personal pronoun following it when the latter consists of a 
single vowel ; thus, ' a ya tanda ' for ' a a ya tanda ;' a be 
tandile ' for ' a e be tandile.' The relative a is sometimes 
dropped ; thus, ^ ba tanda ' for ' aba tanda.' 

5. The negative a is sometimes omitted ; thus, ' ngi nge 
tande ' for ' a ngi nge tande ;' ' ku mdala' for ' a ku mdala.' 

6. The part or the whole of a word is sometimes omitted, or 
part of several words in succession, and the remainder con- 
tracted ; thus, ' u nge ko ' for ' u nga bi ko ' (h being dropped, 
and a-i=e)\ ' ngo tanda' for 'ngi ya ku tanda' {% y, and ^, 
being dropped, and a-u — o)\ ' umka 'Faku' for ' umf azi ka 
'Faku.' 

7. Sometimes a medial letter or syllable is dropped ; thus, 
' bulawa ' for ' bulalwa ;' ' ngoba ' for ' ngokuba ;' ' pumla ' for 
' pumula.' 

8. Omission and contraction generally occur in forming 
compound words; thus, 'umnikazindhlu' for 'umninikazi 
indlilu.' 

Rem. —Further illustration and examples of omission and contrac- 
tion, especijally where these are attended with a change of vowels, are 
given in remarks on euphonic vowel changes, contraction, crasis, 
apostrophe, etc. (See § 10.) 



ZULUIZING FOREIGN WORDS. 33 

CHAPTER III. 

ZULUIZING FOREIGN WORDS. 

§ 54. In transferring foreign proper names into tlie Zulu 
language, two things need to be kept in mind and aimed at ; 
namelj, to preserve, as far as possible, the identity of the 
name, and also to conform it to the genius of the language 
into which it is introduced. 

a. As a matter of truthfulness to man and to history — to the past 
and the future— and as a point of interest in philology, the form, the 
substance, the general identity of the name, should be preserved as far 
as possible. 

h. At the same time, such changes must be made in the name, as the 
genius of the language decidedly requires, to give it a place among 
names in its new situation, and to prepare it for utterance among the 
people who are to speak it. 

§ 55. To accomplish these two objects, so far as they are 
compatible, and to preserve a proper medium between the 
two, the following rules may be of service : — 

1. In Zuluizing a foreign proper name, give it an incipient, 
unless its initial letter or syllable will pass for such, which is 
seldom the case ; supply it also with a terminating vowel, 
unless it have one of its own. 

The common incipient for persons is ic or urn / for tribes, 
ama / for places, the most common is i / and for rivers, the 
most common is um. But the names of places and rivers 
often have other incipients ; as, -i^, m, avia. 

This I'ule would make JJdcovida for David ; Amayuda for 
Jews ; Izione for Zion ; TJnile for Nile ; etc. 

Rem. 1. — The initial vowel or syllable of some proper names may be 
made to pass, though not without some objections, for the Zulu incip- 
ient. Such is the I initial in Italy, Itali ; and the first syllable, In, in 
India ; also the Ama, in Amazon. 

Rem. 2. — When the initial letter of a name is a vowel, and will not 
pass well for the incipient, the semi- vowel w or y is sometimes inserted 
between that vowel and the prefixed incipient, especially when the 
incipient supplied consists of or terminates in a vowel, and a consider- 
able hardness would occur without such an insertion ; thus, lyasia for 
Asia ; Uyisake for Isaac. 

2. a. In Zuluizing a foreign proper name, let the letters of 
the name be followed, as far as possible, and not the present 
or former, real or supposed, sounds. The letter or character is 
permanent, and may be followed ; but the assigned value or 
sound often varies in different languages, in different ages, and 
among different nations and persons. 

h. But in pronouncing the transferred name, in Zulu, the 
letters should have the same sound which they uniformly have 
3 



34 ACCENTUATION. 

in all other cases in the Zulu language. Otherwise the value 
of a given letter would often vary, and the variations would 
produce doubt and confusion. 

According to this rule, David is Zuluized (as above) thus, Udavida, 
and not Udevida ; and the medial a is pronounced, in Zulu, like a in 
father, and not like a in name. So Nero is Zuluized Unero, and the e 
is pronounced like ey in they. So likewise Geneva is Zuluized Igeneva, 
and the g pronounced, in Zulu, like the hard English g, as in go, and 
not like j. 

3. When the Zulu alphabet has no letter nor combination 
corresponding at all in value to a certain letter or combination 
in a foreign proper name, a convenient equivalent, if there be 
one, is used instead. By this rule Cairo becomes, in Zulu, 
Ikairo ; Congo, Vkongo / Quebec, Ikwebeka / Philip, Dfilijpi. 

4. A difficult combination may be avoided : — 

(a.) Sometimes by dropping one of the letters — that one, or more, 
which will have the least effect upon the identity of the word : as, 
Utomasi for Thomas ; Uandoniko for Andronicus ; Ugaye for Gains. 

(6.) Sometimes by inserting another letter, vowel, semi- vowel, or 
consonant, so as to aid pronunciation by resolving the compound : 
thus, Ingilande for England : Igipete for Egypt ; Amagerike tor Greeks. 

(c.) Sometimes the diliiculty is relieved by a transposition of letters ; 
thus, Isareli for Israel ; llagiria for Algiers. 

{d.) Sometimes by quite exchanging the difficult combination for 
other letters ; as, tlsitaki for Stachys : Umasinkwito for Asyncritus ; 
Utulifosa for Tryphosa. 

Rem. 1. — Compatible consonants in combination require, of course, 
no separation nor omission. 

Rem. 2.— In most cases, to retain two vowels in juxtaposition is 
doubtless better than to prolong; and mar the word by inserting a letter 
between them ; thus, lyudia, tinoa, Upaule. 

§ 56. In transferring common words into the Isi'zulu, much 
more liberty may be taken, letters being omitted or inserted, 
transposed or exchanged, for the sake of ease in pronunciation, 
in many cases ; w^hile, in proper names, great liberty in mak- 
ing changes is precluded by a proper regard for the integrity 
of such names. 



CHAPTER IV. 

ACCENTUATION. 

§ 5Y. Accent is a particular stress of the voice, or an ichis 
upon a certain syllable of a word, distinguishing that syllable 
from the others, and giving to its vowel great clearness of 
sound. 

Rem. 1. — As a word may consist of any number of syllables from one 
i'j seven, eight, or ten, it is a matter of convenience and precision to 
have some easy means of distinguishing words from mere syllables ; 
otherwise, discourse would be a monotonous unmeaning succession of 



ACCENTUATION. 35 

mere sounds. For, as words are the divisions of discourse into signifi- 
cant portions, any doubt or confusion as to the proper limits of words 
must lead to confusion in respect to the ideas which words are meant 
to convey. Hence, one great end of accent is to aid the mind in ascer- 
taining and observing the limits of words. 

Rem. 2. — Moreover, every sentence uttered is both easier to the voice 
and more agreeable to the ear, when broken up into symmetrical parts 
with convenient pauses between them. He/ice, again, another im- 
portant end of accent in the Isizulu is euphony ; and a kind of rhyth- 
mical beat is observed in a succession of monosyllabic words, where 
the particular place of the accent is dictated solely by euphonic consid- 
erations, without regard to the formation or the meaning of the words. 
And it is on this principle, as we shall see, that the accent is some- 
times carried forward or backward from its usual place, and in some 
instances is transferred even from the more important, essential word, 
to a word of a relational and secondary character. 

§ 58. 1. As a general law of the language tlie accent is laid 
upon the penultimate syllable ; as, fnina, jpQZ'n^ i7ihomo, 
^ikuhona. 

2. If a word consists of many syllables, it generally takes a 
secondary accent, and even a tertiary, if the number of sylla- 
bles is very many ; thus, mnsebenzi ; ink.osikd^zi ; intoviba- 
zana ; eJcutSindase?ii ; \sizvJindw2ina. 

3. Occasionally a word takes a second primary accent, if 
such it can be called — one on the penult, and the other on the 
final syllable ; and sometimes the accent is carried forward 
from the penultimate to the final syllable ; thus, into enhuhx ; 
intcmdo yctbo ; miwd,. 

These deviations from the general rule are made, appar- 
ently, in part, to draw attention to the particular word thus 
accented; and in part, sometimes, for the sake of giving a 
playful variety to speech. 

4. The elision of the final vowel of a word sometimes throws 
the accent upon the final syllable ; thus, inhos\ Udingd.n\ 

5. a. The accent is occasionally carried forward from the 
penult to the final syllable, through the influence of a follow- 
ing monosyllabic word or enclitic, as Ice^ n% ze^ etc., whose 
accent is, in turn, thrown back upon the principal word. In 
consequence of this reciprocal influence and union of accents, 
the two words are written, as they are pronounced, together, 
as one word (see § 51., 2.) ; thus, temhdJce / suhd^ni ; wa ham- 
hdt,ze / a si how^ncja. 

h. Other monosyllabic words, however, as ho, le, and the 
interrogative 7ict, neither affect the accent of the former word, 
nor lose their own ; and hence they retain a separate standing, 
as independent words ; thus, svika ho ; sa vola le ; vm VMma 
ndif 

6. In a few instances, the primary accent may be laid upon 
the antepenult ; as, ngohuha, instead of ngokxxha. But this is 
rare. 



i^6 QUANTITY OF A SYLLABLE. 

§ 59. 1. The monosyllabic relational words, as the pronouns 
and auxiliary verbs, which precede the principal verb, and aid 
in its conjugation, are of a semitonic and proclitic character, 
being subject to a kind of rhythmical, tripping accent, and 
incHning forward, in tenor of pronunciation, to the essential 
orthotonic word which follows ; thus, 7ii ya kto bona ; he ngi 
tmida ; a ngi <sa yi hio hd^mha. 

2. When the essential word is itself a monosyllable, the 
principal accent is thrown back upon the next preceding 
word, except wdien the essential word is followed by an en- 
clitic ; \hM^, si y2i fa ^ ngipej ngi jpeni j w^ti; watike^ wa 
iini na f 

Rem. — The character and accentuation of both proclitics and en- 
clitics, as well as the number of these words, is much the same 'as in 
the English language. Thus, in the sentence, — If Johii's in the house, 
don't tell him a word of this, the words, if, in, the. a, and of, are all 
proclitics ; and the words, is, not, and him, enclitics. Moreover, the 
English words which are used in translating the Zulu proclitics and 
enclitics, are, themselves, for the most part, either enclitic or proclitic. 
And in both languages alike, the smaller parts of speech, as the pro- 
nouns, auxiliaries, conjunctions, and prepositions, have generally an 
obscure and feeble pronunciation ; while the more significant, the 
essential words, as nouns and verbs, are pronounced, as a w^hole, more 
firmly, and with more distinctness. 

§ 60. In the case of compound words, the former of the two 
loses its primary accent, the voice hurrying on to the penult of 
the second — the penult of the compound ; as in Itafanidisi^ 
from itafa and amasi ; Amanzimt(dii^ from Amanzi and 
amtoti ; enripuinalMiga. (See §58. ,2.) 

Rem. — In one respect, this is just the opposite of what we have in the 
English, where the first of the two words in composition takes the 
principal accent, as in book-case, steam-boat. The principle, however, 
is the same in both languages, the accent being generally attracted, in 
composition, by that word which limits the other, and thus gives a 
specific character to the compound. 



CHAPTER V. 
QUANTITY OF A SYLLABLE. 

§ 61. The quantity of a syllable is the space of time occu- 
pied in pronouncing it. 

1. If the quantity of a syllable, in the Isizulu, be deter- 
mined as in English, by the character of the vowel which 
enters into it, then all syllables are lon^ which contain a long 
or accented vowel ; and all short, which contain a short, or 
unaccented vowel. (See §12., 4.) Hence, if measured by the 



PUNCTUATION, ITALICS, AND CAPITALS. 37 

quantity of the vowel, the final syllable ndhla, of amandhla^ 
is short, because the vowel in it, receiving no accent, is short ; 
while the syllable ma, of the same word, is long, its vowel 
having the accent. 

2. But if the quantity of a syllable be determined, not by 
the length of the vowel, but by the length of the syllable 
taken altogether, according to the mode of measuring in the 
classical languages, such syllables as ndhla in amandhla^ nhwa 
in ishikaioa^ and mnya in ehiimnymneni^ are long, though the 
vowels in them are unaccented, and consequently short. 

There are, in these syllables, ndhla, etc., certain mechanical 
causes, which compel the voice to dwell upon them quite as 
long as upon their contiguous accented syllables, ma, si, me, 
which are long by virtue of their long vowels. 

Rem. 1. — If one person measures the quantity of a syllable in Isizulu 
by the vowels only, and another by the whole length of the syllable, 
including both vowels and consonants, what is long to the one may be 
short to the other, and vice versa. 

Rem. 2. — The whole subject of Zulu Prosody requires a separate and 
special consideration. , 



CHAPTER VL 

PUNCTUATION, ITALICS, AND CAPITALS. 

§ 62. 1. The number and value of the points or marks 
inserted in written Zulu composition, for the purpose of show- 
ing more clearly the sense intended to be conveyed, and the 
pauses required in reading, are the same as those employed in 
the English language. 

2. At the close of an interrogative sentence, the Zulu makes use of 
an interrogative particle, na (with the falling slide), which corresponds, 
in import, to the rising slide or mtonation employed in English, to 
mark an interrogative sentence. 

3. The diaeresis is not used in Zulu, the general law being, without it, 
to give each vowel, though written in connection with another, its own 
separate and distinct sound in all cases, except ai, au, and ei, which, 
when taken together, constitute a diphthong. 

§ 63. 1. In translating the Scriptures into Isizulu, italic let- 
ters are employed to indicate those words which are not found 
in the original ; as, "Amafa a wile kumi ezindaweni ezinhle ;" 
"ngesono somunye Icwe za icala pezu kwabo bonke." 

2. Italics may be used also, as in other languages, to distin- 
guish any particular word or phrase for the sake of emphasis, 
or for any other purpose. 

3. When it is designed to make a word or phrase still more 
conspicuous than it would be in italics, it is printed in capitals, 
as the titles of books, captions, the first word of a chapter, etc. 



38 PUNCTUATION, ITALICS, AND CAPITALS. 

§ 64. The following classes of words, according to the usage 
of other languages, should commence, in Isizulu, with a cap- 
ital letter: — 

1. The first word of a sentence. 

2. The first word of every line of poetry. 

3. The first word of a direct quotation. 

4. The appellations of the Deity. 

5. All proper nouns, as names of persons, places, rivers^ 
tribes. 

6. Some other words, as titles of honor and distinction ; 
common nouns personified ; the first word of an example ; and 
all such words as generally commence thus in other languages. 

Rem. 1.— When a noun is inflected, as in forming the locative case, 
and the first letter changed, as to e or o, this letter thus changed is still 
made capital ; thus, Enanda (Inanda) ; Emvoti (Umvoti) ; Enkosini 
(Tnkosi) ; Otugela (Utugela). 

Rem. 2. — Sometimes a euphonic particle, as s, ng, w, or y, is prefixed 
to a proper noun ; but these are written in small letters, like other 
words, forming, as they do, no part of the noun ; thus, ngUsibekana ; 
u ylnkosi; ha sEnanda na sEmvoti. 

Rem. 3. — a. When a proper noun is preceded by a word or particle, 
as the preposition na, or nga. whose final vowel coalesces with the 
initial vowel of the name, the first permanent unaffected letter in the 
name becomes capital ; thus, Umenzi noMsindisi ; Inanda neTafamasi 
noMvoti ; izwi leNkosi. 

b. But when the final vowel of the preceding word is elided or 
absorbed, without affecting the initial letter of the proper name, that 
initial letter is made capital, according to the general rule ; thus, 
Amalanga ?i' Amazidu ; Obaba ?i' Omame. 

Rem. 4. — Sometimes the initial vowel of a proper name is cut off, as 
in the vocative, and some forms of the genitive, when the apheresis is 
marked by an apostrophe, and the first remaining letter becomes 
capital ; thus, 'Nkosi ; ^Faku ; izinkomo zi ka 'Mpand.e. 

Note. — After much study of the difiicult question of capitals, a new 
look at the genius of the Zulu and other Bantu languages, and a care- 
ful comparison of all the various methods of writing Bantu capitals, I 
see no reason to change or modify the foregoing rules. They are 
natural, plain, easy alike for the writer, the printer and the reader, 
and, as near as possible, in practical accord with the rule for capitals 
in other languages. They are in the best possible accord with good 
taste, do not mar or break up the word, or disturb its integrity. They 
cannot be charged with any appearance of pedantry, carry no sign of 
scholastic analysis, or dissection, M^hich are all proper enough in the 
study or lecture-room, but neither helpful nor pleasing to the common 
reader. Much less do these rules involve any arbitrary, difiicult, or 
needlessly minute division in a name. 

In respect to other methods, it must be said that some of them put 
indignity upon a word by separating essential elements, as the incip- 
ient from the radical, the infiectional from the root, and so make, as it 
were, invidious distinctions by passing over the first part of a word 
and giving the capital to the second which has really been brought up 
from an isolated root condition into recognition, into service, into a 
place and part in the body politic of language, by the aid of the so- 
called prefix, or the now antecedent element of the word.* Thus, for 

* See §88, 1, 2; also § 67. 



PUNCTUATION, ITALICS, AND CAPITALS. 39 

Inkosi, Lord, some would write inKosi ; umVoti for Umvoti ; umuSi 
for Umusi. And then at the beginning of a sentence, or of a line in a 
Hymn, they must give the name two capitals, one for the prefix, another 
for the root ; as, JnKosi, UmSindisi, UmEnzi, UYise. Some separate 
the incipient, inflectional element from the root ; thus, in Kosi, um 
Voti, iimu Si ; and some quite shut off the incipient by putting a bar 
between this and the radical; as, in-Kosi, um-Voti, umu-Si. Indeed, 
some divide the incipient element itself, and give the capital to the 
second part of it ; as, i Nkosi, u Mvoti, u Musi. Some complicate the 
matter still more, not only dividing the word into two parts and insert- 
ing the bar, but they give to each part a capital of its own ; thus, 
In-Kosi, Um-Voti, Umu-Si. The difficulty of writing in this way is 
increased by the fact that, in many cases, only the Bantu philologist, 
or complete master of the language, can tell, for certain, where the 
root begins ; nor are these always agreed : thus, in the word unkulun- 
kulu, which some use to signify "God," Dohne makes the root begin 
with the first k ; Colenso, with the first n ; the former taking un to be 
the prefix ; the latter, u. Take the words umoya, umbalane, inja. as 
they are usually written, and how many, even of those who profess to 
know Zulu, would make the root begin with m in the first and second, 
and with n in the third? But with the rules I have given, as above, 
which put the capital at the beginning of the entire word, one need not 
stop to inquire how much of it belongs to the root, and how much to 
the infiectional element. 

The difficulty, absurdity, of departing from the common rule, as fol- 
lowed in other languages, and trying to put the capital somewhere in 
the middle, the body, of the word, is seen in the fact that those who 
urge and profess to follow this rule are ever and anon departing from 
it. To be consistent, such writers should write, not Bantu, but ha Ntu, 
or ba-Ntu, or Ba-Ntii, and speak of the ba Ntu race, or the ba-lStu lan- 
guage. But who of them ever does it? It would take long, and too 
much room to point out their many deviations, by design, mistake or 
ignorance, from their rules. In the writings of one, we find the word 
divided and a hyphen used, about half the time, as in such as these 
examples : Mushu, Kimbundu, Ki-mbundu, Ba-shilange, and then a 
division and two capitals ; as, Ba-Humbi. In another, we find the 
word sometimes divided, a hyphen and two capitals used, and some- 
times not, as in these examples : Unguja, U-Zaramo ; Umzila, U-Ngozi ; 
Amakali, Ama-Tonga ; Maviti on one page, and Ma-Viti on the next ; 
Amalala and Ma-Tabele. One writes, at one time, Otjilierero, at another, 
Otji-herero ; and another writes Otji-Herero. In one of our largest 
missionary Magazines I find a sketch of the English missions in Eastern 
Equatorial Africa, in which the editor seems to let the writer have his 
own way about the use of capitals, for, with this exception, the Maga- 
zine generally follows the common rule of putting the capital at the 
beginning of the word. But in the scores of proper names in this 
sketch, the writer is found continually changing from one method to 
another and back again; thus, Uganda, U-Sagara ; Uyui, U-Nyam- 
ivezi; Usambiro. U-Sukama ; Mtua, U-Sambara— all this and much 
more of a like kind in the scores of proper names that occur on just 
one page. Had the writer attempted to follow the one common, sim- 
ple rule of using but one capital for one word and putting that at the 
beginning, we had been saved such confusion and inconsistency. 

Nor can there be any doubt that this one easy, common rule will yet 
prevail. The penman will, eventually, tire of trying to put two capi- 
tals and a hyphen into every proper name ; the printer will tire of 
printing in this way ; nor will the common reader, or great reading 
public care to be always told which is the root and which is the infiec- 
tional element of every name in the Bantu, any more than in the 
English and other languages. Analysis, the cutting up of a word and 
marking each of its elements may ever have its place in the Bantu 



40 PUNCTUATION, ITALICS, AND CAPITALS. 

grammar and dictionary, as it does in such works in other languages 
but for the common reader it is not needed ; it mars the word, blemishes 
the page, offends good taste. So it is that we find this method gen- 
erally discarded and the other, the simpler and more common method, 
generally preferred by all the best writers, secular, literary, religious, 
who have occasion to write Bantu names. The learned and scholarly 
author of "Stanley's Emin Pasha Expedition,'" A. J. Wauters, chief 
editor of the Mouvement Geographique, Brussels, has probably used as 
many names of this kind as there are pages in his book ; in every one 
of which he puts the capital at the beginning of the word, and never 
divides a word ; as, Uganda, Unyoro, Manyanga, Wahuma. The able, 
classic historian of South Africa, the Honorable G. McC. Theal, mem- 
ber of several literary societies in Europe, in his several South African 
works, has occasion to use a multitude of Bantu names, all of which 
he writes without a division, and with the capital at the beginning of 
the word, so making a neat and beautiful page ; as, Umvoti, Umlazi, 
Umhopa, Amaswazi. " Cety wayo's story of the Zulu Nation and the 
War," as taken from his lips by Captain Poole, Royal Artillery, and 
published in " Macmillan's Magazine," abounds in Zulu names, averag- 
ing from five or ten to fifty or sixty a page, in none of which is there 
any dividing of a word into parts, and in all of which the capital is put 
at the beginning ; as, Umkungo, Uhamu, Umhlatuzi, XJlundi, Etchowe, 
Kwamagwasa, Abanguni. In "Scribner's" "Where Emin is," by 
Colonel Prout, we also find many Bantu names, each and all printed as 
those above : thus, Unyoro, Wanyoro, Mtesa, Uganda, Waganda. In 
Harper's "Through the Dark Continent," giving account of one of 
Stanley's expeditions, we find the same rule, every Bantu name begin- 
ning with a capital, and no dividing of words ; as, Mtesa, UMmbu, 
Ujiji, Usongoro. Such, too, is the rule generally observed in Funk and 
Wagnalls' new "Encyclopedia of Missions," as may be seen in its arti- 
cle on Africa, on the Bantu race, and in numberless other places. 

In Scribner's two volumes of Stanley's " Darkest Africa," which 
abounds in Bantu proper names, I find not a single name divided, nor 
a capital in any part of a name except at the beginning. 



DEFINITIONS AND GENEKAL REMARKS. 41 

PAKT II.— ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER I. 
DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS. 

Sect. 1. — Definitions and General Bemarhs. 

§ 65. Etymology^ which is the second part of grammar, 
treats of ^\q forms and changes of words. The term, as 
often used, has a two-fold import, — the one higher and more 
extended, the other lower and moi*e restricted. 

1. In its highest sense, the office of etymology is to examine 
the origin and changes of the mere roots of words, and their 
connection with corresponding; roots in different languages. 
This is the etymology of the philologist, and is sometimes 
called historical or coniparative etymology. 

2. Bnt in its more limited signification — as nsed by the 
grammarian, and as opposed to orthography and syntax — 
etymology classifies words, and treats of the forms and 
changes to which they are subject, in one and the same lan- 
guage. 

Rem, — Both kinds of etymology agree in taking cognizance of the 
changes which the forms of words undergo— the one, of changes more 
remote, as from the lapse of time, and the passing of words from one 
language to another ; the other, of changes more immediate, for gram- 
matical significant purposes, as in the following pages. 

§ 66. The changes to which the forms of words are subject, 
and which properly come within the province of a practical 
grammar of a particular language, are of two kinds — the one 
called Inflection., which includes declension and conjugation ; 
and the other. Formation^ which includes derivation and com- 
position. 

Rem. — The nature and end of inflection and of formation will be 
better understood from observing that many of the words in Isizulu, 
as in most other languages, consist of two parts— a radical and a 
formative. 

§ 67. 1. A. The radical part of a word, or the root^ taken 
in its strictest sense, and as well defined by another — -"is a 
significant element, from w^hich words, as forms of thought 
and parts of speech, are derived. It is not itself a word, but 
that which lies at the foundation of a whole family of words. 
The root has signification, but not a definite signification, in the 
system of our ideas or in the system of language. It does not 



42 DEFINITIONS AND GENEKAL REMARKS. 

express an idea which can form a component part of language, 
but only the intuition or appearance which is common to the 
noun or idea, and the verb or judgment, and wants the modifi- 
cation which makes it a noun or verb." Thus, from the 
general, indefinite root, l)on, in Isizulii, the verb hona^ see, is 
derived by sufiixing a / the verb uku hona^ to see, by the pre- 
fix iikit ; the noun imiboni^ a seer, an observer, by the suffix i 
and the prefix or incipient um. 

Eem.— The root, as thus described, is a circumscribed nucleus— a 
mere germ which lies beneath the surface, as it were, and forms no 
part of ordinary speech until brought to light, and fitted for use by 
the aid of certain additional letters or syllables, which are called forrti- 
atives or serviles, as illustrated in the examples given above. 

B. Formative letters or syllables may be found (as in the 
above examples), either at the beginning of the radical ele- 
ment, and be called an incipient^ preformative, or prefix ; or 
at the end, and called afforinative^ suffix, or inflection-ending ; 
or they may be found at both the beginning and the end, and 
all for the purpose of giving the mere root a rank, a relation- 
ship, or else a progeny, as it were, in the bo<^y j)olitic of words. 

2. The term root or radical word often has, in common parlance, a 
more extended signification. It sometimes refers to the entire word 
formed directly from the pure root, including both the germ and the 
inflection, increment, or formative, being, as it were, the trunk or first 
section of the stem above ground. And, as denoting jprimitives (in dis- 
tinction from derivatives) — those words from which others are derived, 
but which are themselves underived^this use of the term is not inap- 
propriate ; though the term primitive would generally be better in 
such cases. 

3. The term root is sometimes used also to designate that part of a 
word — perhaps a derived word — which expresses the simple idea, as 
distinguished from the inflective or formative part which is used to 
denote the relations of the idea. In this sense a word may be called 
a root, which, in either of the former senses, is a derivative. But the 
uninflected part of such a word may be called a stem, or else specified 
as the root of a derivative. 

§ 68. The ojfice of mfl£ction is to express the relations 
which the essential parts of speech hold to each other. Thus, 
the word umfxda^ river (simple Yooi^ful), changed to 'hnifula, 
signifies rivers ; and changed to emfuleni^ it signifies, at or in 
the river; so tanda, love, changed to tamlile, signifies, have 
loved. 

Rem. 1. — In many cases, however, the relations which the essential 
parts of speech hold to each other, or to the person speaking, are ex- 
pressed, not by inflections, but by separate relational ivords, such as 
the auxiliary verbs, pronouns and prepositions ; thus, si ya tanda, we 
do love ; kii ''bantu, to the people. 

Rem. 2. — The close resemblance which the pronouns bear to the 
incipient elements of the nouns to which they relate, reflecting, as it 



CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 43 

were, the very image of those incipients, and the extensive use which 
is made of these reflecting relational words, have suggested the pro- 
priety of denominating the Isizulu and its cognates the REflective class 
of languages, and thus distinguishing them, as by contrast, from those 
languages which are more strongly marked by inflection, and hence 
are called the INJlective class. 

§ 69. Fortnation^ as the term is used in grammar, is a lin- 
guistic process, which gives new words in two ways — either bj 
derimng one word from another, or by composing one word 
from two others. 

A. Derivation, in the widest sense of the term, includes 
all those changes which are made in words to express different 
cases, numbers, modes, and tenses. But in its more limited 
and appropriate sense, and as used in the following pages, it 
consists in forming one word from another hy effecting some 
change or modification in the primitive, other than what are 
ordinarily denominated inflections. Thus, the verb tandisa, 
cause to love, is formed from the verb tanda, love, by chang- 
ing final a of the primitive into isa / and the noun umhainbi, 
walker, is formed from the verb haniba, walk, by changing 
final a of the primitive to i, and prefixing the incipient um. 

B. Composition, or the formation of compound words, is 
the union of two words so as to form only one. In Isizulu the 
limiting word, or that which denotes the specific difference, 
usually follows that which denotes the genus or general idea, 
and takes the principal accent of the compound ; thns, udhl- 
ilifa, an inheritor, from tidhli {\ihu dhla, to eat), eater, and 
ilifa (from uhu fa, to die), inheritance ; icmnimuzi, or umni- 
nhmizi, owner of a kraal, town-proprietor, from umnini 
and umuzi ; Impumalanga, east, sun-rising, from uku puma 
and Hang a ; Itafamasi, name of a place, from itafa and 
amasi, literally, milk-plain. 

Sect. 2. — Classification of Wo7'ds. 

§ 70. 1. The words of the Isizulu may be divided into sorts 
or classes, in different ways, according to the particular aspect 
in which they are viewed. 

2. One very natural and summary division is that which 
reduces all the parts of speech to the two classes called Essen- 
tial and Kelational Words. (See § 50.) 

§ 71. Essential words are those which express the ideas of 
being or of action, and on which other words depend, to 
which others refer, or between which others show a relation. 
To this class, which is called primary also, and sometimes 
notional, belong nouns, verbs, and adjectives, and some 
adverbs. This class of words is so necessary to the communi- 



44 KINDS OF NOUISS. 

cation of ideas, that no complete sentence can be formed with- 
out the use of some of them, except where a substitute is used, 
as a pronoun in place of a noun. 

§ 72. Relational words are those which are used to express 
a connection, and the kind of connection, or to show the differ- 
ent relations which exist between essential Avords. Essential 
words express ideas or notions onlj in a general way ; rela- 
tional words limit them, distinguishing or connecting particular 
species or individuals, or showing the time, manner, agent, 
object, and other particulars of action. To this class belong 
the pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, and conj auctions, 
and some of the adverbs. (See § 50., J.) 

Rem.— The interjection is a peculiar organic sound expressive only of 
emotion, and not confined to human discourse. Though it may, per- 
haps, be called a part of speech, it is incapable of logical combination 
with other words, having nothing to do with the operations of the 
intellect. 

§ 73. According to a more minute and common classihca- 
tion, Zulu words may be divided into the eight following sorts, 
or parts of sjMech ^ namely, IN'oun, Adjective, Pronoun, Yerb, 
Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection. There is 
no Article^ either definite or indefinite, belonging to the Isi- 
zulu.* 



CHAPTER 11. 

THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 

§ 74. The words in Isizulu which are included in the 
general term Woun^ correspond to those of the same class in 
other languages, being used to denote the name of an object. 

Sect. 1. — Kinds of Nouns. 

§ 75. Nouns may be divided into the two kinds, called con- 
crete and abstract. 

I. Concrete Nouns are the names of existences which are 
subject to the observation of the senses. These may be 
divided into : — 

a. Projper nouns, or names which refer only to individual 
persons or objects ; as, Umpande^ TJmvoti^ Inanda. 

h. Common or appellative nouns, which are the names of a 
class of persons or things, or of an individual belonging to a 
class, whether found in nature ; as umuntu, umuti, intaba ; 
or in art, as uniuzi, igeja, ingubo. 

* See Appendix, Sect. I. 



FOKMATION OF NOUNS. ' 45 

c. Material nouns, or nonns in which there is no idea of 
form, organization, or individnahtj, but only an aggregate 
notion ; as, ainanzi^ %tbis% isihlahati. 

d. Collective nouns, or nouns which designate a number of 
single persons or things taken as a wliole ; as, imjpi^ isifazana, 
isihingit. 

II. Abstract Nouns are names of simple qualities, actions, 
or modes of existence, considered independent of a subject ; 
as, amandhla^ utando^ lobumhlojje^ ubuldungu. 

Sect. 2. — Formation of Norms. 

§ 76. The formation of Zulu nouns gives rise to other divi- 
sions, as into Primitives and Derivatives ; (Simple) and 
Compound Nouns. 

% 77. I. Primitive nouns are those which have their origin 
in no other word, whether noun or other part of speech, being, 
in a manner, self-existent. Their number is comparatively 
small. They comprise most material nouns, the names of 
many animals and plants, some of the great objects of the 
natural world, some of the members of the body, and some 
other names ; as, amanzi, inyoni, imvu^ %tinuti^ imifino^ ilifu, 
ilanga^ \d)uso^ %iniJcono^ uhaha, udade. 

§ 78. II. Derivative nouns, which are far the most numer- 
ous class, comprise all those which are derived either from 
other nouns, or from adjectives, or from verbs, or from some 
other part of speech, by means of some change or addition of 
certain letters at the beginning or the end, or both, of the 
primitives. 

§ 79. A. Nouns are derived from nouns, and called nom- 
inal derivatives ; thus : — 

1. Abstract nouns are formed from concrete nouns, by 
changing the incipient of the latter into id)u ; thus, 

From inkosi, king, comes ubukosi, royalty ; from isiula, fool, comes 
ubuula, folly ; and from indoda, man, comes ubudoda, manliness. 

2. Projper nouns are formed from common, by changing 
the initial vowel of the latter into %i / thus, 

From isikota, grass, comes Usikota, the name of a person ; so from 
imali, money, comes Umali ; from amasukii, days, Umasuku ; and 
from intaba, mountain, comes the proper name Untaba. 

3. Collective nouns are sometimes formed from common 
concrete nouns, by changing the incipient of the latter into 
isi f' thus, 

From umuntu. person, comes isintu, mankind ; from umlungu, white 
man comes isilungu. the white race ; and from ukova, a banana (tree), 
isikova, a number of banana trees taken together, a banana garden. 



46 • FOEMATION OF NOUNS. 

4. Augmentative nouns implying increase in number, size, 
degree, beauty, or excellence, are formed in two ways : — 

a. By reduplicating the radical portion of tlie primitive ; 
thus, 

Isivunguvungu, a very powerful wind ; unkulunkidu, the great great 
one, or the very great one— the first man. 

b. By suffixing Jcazi ; thus, 

Imiti, trees, imitikazi, very fine trees ; ubaha, my father, uhahakazi, 
my renowned or most excellent father, my father's brother. This suf- 
fix often marks the feminine gender ; thus, umlungu, white man ; 
umlungukazi, white woman. (See § 110.) 

5. Diminutive nouns are formed from other nouns by 
means of the suffix ana^ together with such euphonic changes 
as the language requires in the final vowel and roots of the 
primitives. 

a. Nouns ending in a, e, or i^ generally change these letters 
into a7ia to form the diminutive ; thus, 

Umfula, river, umfulana, little river ; umsele, ditch, umselana, little 
ditch ; mibuzi, goat, imbuzana, little goat. 

h. Nouns ending in o or u change these letters into ivana, 
or rather change these letters into ^v and suffix ana ; thus, 

Into, thing, intivana, little thing ; umuntu, person, umuntwana, or 
umntwana, child. 

Rem. — Where the iv would be incompatible with the preceding letter 
(see §25.), it is <lropped ; thus, lunfo, man, person, umfana, boy ; imvu, 
sheep, imvana, little sheep, lamb. 

c. Nouns whose final vowel is «, e, or i, preceded by n, 
change that vowel to yana ; or rather change that vowel to 
ana^ as before (see a, above), and insert y for euphony and 
union ; thus, 

Isona, a (kind of) weed, isonyana, a little weed ; imfene, baboon, 
imfenyana, little baboon ; inyoni, bird, inyonyana, little bird. 

Rem. -We have an example of the same thing, the use of i=y, for 
the sake of euphony and union, in the English compound handicraft. 
« 

d. Nouns whose final vowel is preceded by h, m^ mh^ nd^ or 
p^ change that vowel to ana^ and also generally change h into 
ty^ m into ny^ nib into nj^ sometimes nd into nj^ and p into ty 
(according to § 34) ; thus, inl'ahi, ox, hikatyana^ little ox ; 
in'komo^ cow, in'konyana^ calf; isivimbo^ a ^io'^^ev.^isivinjana, 
a little stopper ; iqanda^ Qgg^ iqanjana, little egg. 

Rem.— These euphonic changes are sometimes neglected, especially 
in the case of nd ; thus, impande', root, impandana, little root. (See 
§33.,Rem. 1.) 



FORMATION OF NOUNS. 47 

e. Diminutive nouns, denoting females, beauty, distinction, 
or excellence, generally affix to the primitive, first, the par- 
ticle azi (full form liazi)^ significant of this gender, or of these 
qualities, and then change i of this affix into ana^ as in other 
cases ; thus, 

[Inkosi, chief, inkosikazi, contracted), inkosazi, chiefess, inkosazana, 
little chiefess, daughter of a chief, superior girl : (umfo, man, person, 
umfoazi, contracted), umfazi, woman, umfazana a little woman ; 
intomhi, a large girl, (intombikazi, intoiiibazi), intombazana, a girl, a 
small girl; inkazi, a woman, inkazana, a girl, maid; inkuku, fowl 
(cock or hen) ; inkukiikazi, a hen, inkukazana, a small hen. 

/. Double or secondary diminutives are formed from pri- 
mary diminutives, by changing the final a of the first diminu- 
tive into yana, i. e., by changing a into a^ia, and inserting the 
euphonic y, according to the rule given above (see c), since 
the final vowel is preceded by n / thus. 

Into, thing, intwana, small thing, iyitwanyana, a very small thing ; 
umuntu, person, umntwana, child, umtwanyana, small child. 

Eem. — Or what amounts to the same thing, these double diminutive 
nouns may be formed directly from the radical noun by affixing anyana 
with such changes in the final syllable of the primitive as are required 
in affixing ana, to form a diminutive of the first class, as already de- 
scribed; thus, into, thing, intwanyana, a very small thing; isilo, animal 
(wild), isilwanyana, very small animal, insect; umfo, man, umf anyana, 
small boy. 

§ 80. Nouns are also derived or zuluized from nouns in 
other languages, by prefixing to the latter an incijDient, and 
making such other changes in them by inserting or omitting 
letters, or affixing a final vowel, as the euphony and genius 
of the Isizulu require, (see §§ 55 and 56) ; thus, 

Umese. a knife, pi. omese, from the Dutch me.s; if aduku or umf aduku, 
dish-cloth, from the Dutch vaatdoek ; itomi, a bride, pi. amatonii, from 
the Dutch toom ; so other nouns, as. isikela. a sickle; isikepe, a ship; 
isitove, a stove; ipulanki, a plank; ufakolweni, half a crown. 

§ 81. B. Nouns are derived from ad.jectives. 

1. Abstract nouns are derived from adjectives by j)refixing 
the incipient uhit to the root ; thus, 

Ubuktdu, greatness, from kulu, great ; ububi, evil, from bi, bad ; 
ubiunnandi, deliciousness, sweetness, from mnandi, delicious, sweet, 
ubude, length, from de, long. 

2. Some common nouns are derived from adjectives, by pre- 
fixing some of the incipients which belong to common nouns, 
as ti77i, i, or, isi / thus, 

Iningi and isiningi, multitude, majority, from ningi, many. 



48 FOEMATION OF NOUNS. 

3. Proper nouns, names of persons, are also derived, some- 
times, from adjectives, by prefixing the incipient of proper 
names ; thus, Umnandi^ the name of Utjaka's mother, from 
mnandi, sweet. 

§ 82. C. But the greater portion of derivative nouns is 
formed from verbs, and called verhals. 

1. a. Personal nouns are derived from the roots or stems 
of verbs, by changing final a to % and prefixing the incipient 
tton. These nouns generally denote the doe?' — the agent of the 
action expressed by the verb ; thus, 

Umha7nhi, a walker, from uku Jiamba, to walk; umalusi, a herder, 
from ukwahisa, to herd; Umsijidisi, Saviour, from uku sindisa, to save^ 
umfundisi, teacher, from uku fundisa, to teach. 

Rem. — Occasionally a noun formed in this way is impersonal, denot- 
ing the object or the effect expressed by the verb; as, umsebenzi, which 
means either work, or worker — the thing done, or the doer, from uku 
sebenza, to work. When umsebenzi signifies worker, the plural is 
formed in aba; thus, abasebenzi, workers; but when it signifies work, 
it forms the plural in imi; thus, imisebenzi, works. 

h. Some personal nouns, derived from verbs, have the in- 
cipient in isi instead of um^ the termination being i^ the same 
as before ; thus, 

Isitidi, a mute, from uku tula, to be silent; isebi, a thief, from ukweba, 
to steal; isazi, a person of intelligence, from ukwazi, to know; isikutali, 
an industrious i)erson, from uku kutala, to be industrious. 

G. A few personal nouns are formed from verbs with other 
incipients and endings ; thus, 

Ikolwa, a believer, from uku kolwa, to believe; isitunywa, one who is 
sent, a messenger, from uku tuma, to send; igeza, a beauty, from uku 
geza, to bathe. 

2. Other nouns (impersonal) are formed from verbs by 
means of various incipients and endings. The meaning of 
these nouns is moulded to some extent by the particular form 
of the incipient and ending — some denoting the simple idea 
expressed by the verb, and others the place or instrument, the 
effect or the object, of the action signified by the verb. 

a. Nouns formed from verbs by means of the incipient 'U7n 
and the ending o, often denote the action or state of the verb, 
abstractly considered ; thus, 

Umhambo, walk, life, from ukii liamba, to walk, live ; umtungo, a 
seam, from uku tunga, to sew; umbuzo, a question, from uku buza, to 
inquire. Sometimes nouns thus formed denote the instrument. 

h. Nouns formed from verbs, with the incipient isi and end- 
ing (9, often denote the instrument or means^ and sometimes 
the place of the action of the verb ; thus, 



FORMATION OF NOUNS. 49 

IsiJcukiUo, a rake, from uku kukula, to rake; isibulo, a threshing in- 
strument or rod, from uku hula, to thresh; isibambo, vise, pinchers, 
from uku bamba, to catch, hold ; isikando, a shop or furnace of the 
smith, from uku kanda, to beat. Some nouns, thus formed, denote the 
effect or object of the verbal action; thus, isilimo, vegetable, cultivated 
plant, from uku lima, to dig; isibalo, writing, from uku bala, to write; 
isapulo, rupture, from ukwapula, to break. 

G. Nouns formed from verbs, with the incipient in or hn 
and the ending 6>, often denote the abstract idea of the verb ; 
thus, injctbulo, joy, from uhit jctbula^ to rejoice ; inkohliso^ de- 
ception, from uhu hohlisa^ to deceive ; imfihlo, a secret, from 
uhu Jihla^ to hide. 

Some nouns thus formed, however, denote the instrument of the 
action denoted by the verb; thus, imbazo, an ax, from uku baza, to 
hew; imfuto, a bellows, from uku futa, to blow. 

d. Of the same import — denoting the abstract idea of the 
verb — are most nouns formed from verbs by means of the 
incipient idii (contracted, u) and the ending o ; thus, 

Udumo, fame, from uku duma, to be famous ; utando, love (also 
intando, love), from uku tanda, to love. Nouns thus formed occasion- 
ally denote the instrument ; as, udondolo, a staff, from uku dondola, 
to walk with a staff. 

e. ]N"ouns formed from verbs with the incipient Hi (con- 
tracted, i) and the ending o, denote sometimes the instrument 
and sometimes the abstract idea of the verb ; thus, 

Igaulo, an ax, from uku gaula, to chop; ibizo, a name, from uku biza, 
to call. 

f. IN'ouns denoting the abstract idea are sometimes formed 
from verbs, by prefixing to the root the incipient uhu, and 
changing the final a to o ; thus, 

Ubulungo, or ubulungiso, goodness, from uku lunga, to be good. 

g. The most common kind of verbal nouns is the infinitive 
mode, used : — («.) Generally as a noun in the ahstract ; thus, 
uhidunga, goodness ; ukujabula^ joy. (5.) But sometimes as 
a noun in the concrete / thus, ulcudhla^ food. 

§ 83. 1. When the root of a verb, from which a noun is 
derived, begins with a vowel, and the incipient ends in one, 
the latter is elided ; thus, 

Isazi, for isiazi, from ukwazi; isono, for isiono, from ukivona; so the 
plural of umoni, thus, aboni, for abaoni. (See § 16., III., 4.) 

2. Some nouns are formed from verbs without any change 
in the final vowel of the latter ; thus, 

Itemba, from uku temba ; iliwa and isiwa, from uku wa. This is 
generally the case with nouns formed from verbs in the passive voice; 
thus, umtunywa, a messenger, apostle, from uku tunywa, to be sent; 
ikolwa, a believer, from uku kolwa, to be satisfied. 

4 



50 FOEMATION OF NOUNS. 

3. A few nouns terminate in e^ especially among those de- 
rived from verbs in the reciprocal form ; as, intcmdane^ an 
orphan, from iihio tandana, to love mutually; owahelene, 
neighbor, from .xilcwakelana^ to build together. 

4. A few nouns are derived from verbs, by prefixing an 
incipient, as in other cases, and dropping the final syllable, 
instead of changing the final vowel ; thus, 

Isilima, a deformed person, from uku limala, to be injured, deformed; 
upau, a mark or sign, from iiku paula, to mark. Or the verb, perhaps, 
in these and similar cases, may have been derived from the noun; as, 
uku paula, from upau. 

§ 84, D. A few nouns are derived from other parts of 

8PPJECH : — 

a. From adverbs / thus, ' Upakade,' a proper name, from 
^pakade,' long ago. 

h. Yyovcl pTej)ositions I thus, 'umpakati,' a councilor, from 
' pakati,' inside, within. 

§ 85. III. Gomi^ound nouns are formed by uniting two words 
in one. This mode of forming words is of later origin than 
derivation, and is employed to express certain definite and 
necessary ideas, for whicli derivation makes no provision. 

The words united to form a compound noun may be : — 

a. Two distinct nouns ; as, ' umninimuzi ' (' umnini ' and 
* umuzi '), owner of a kraal. 

h. A noun and an adjective ; as, ' ubabakulu ' (' ubaba ' 
and ' kulu '), my grandfather ; ' Amanzimtoti ' (' amanzi ' and 
' mtoti '), name of a river. 

G. A verb (radically) and a noun; as, ' intyisandhlu ' ('uku 
tyisa,' to burn, and ' indhlu,' house), the house-burning-wind= 
N.W. wind, which is often strong, hot, and dry, making fires 
very dangerous; ' Impumalanga ' ('uku puma,' to come out, 
and ' ilanga,' sun), east, sunrising ; ' Intyonalanga ' (' uku 
tyona' and 'ilanga'), w^est, sun-setting. 

d. A noun and a verb ; as, 'Ulangalibalele' (' ilanga-li-balela,' 
— 'uku balela,' to be hot = the sun it is hot), a proper name. 

e. A noun (or radically a verb) and an adverb ; as, ' Umfiki- 
semva ' (' umfiki ' from ' uku fika,' euplionic s and ' emuva,' 
after), a proper name. 

Rem. 1. — In forming the compound, the initial vowel of the second 
word is dropped, when there is one ; thus, umninimuzi, from umnini 
and umuzi; umsebelayiga , from umsebe and ilanga. 

Rem. 3. — The modifying word follows that which expresses the gen- 
eral idea, and takes the principal accent. (See §69., B., and §60.) If, 
however, the second of the compound be a monosyllable, or become 
one by the elision of its initial vowel according to the last remark, the 
principal accent falls on the final syllable of the first of the compound, 
the accent of the compound being the same as in a simple word. 



NOMINAL INCIPIENTS OR PREFORMATIVES. 51 

§ 86. The most common form of two words entering into a 
compound, is tlie erect or uninilected, as ' umninimiizi,' etc. 
But to tliis general rule tliere are some exceptions, one or both 
of the elements of the compound being taken sometimes in an 
oblique or inflected form ; thus, ' Ulangalibalele.' Here the 
verb ' balele ' is taken in an inflected form, the present perfect 
tense, with its direct nominative, the pronoun li, which agrees 
with its noun ' ilanga ;' the flrst form of the compound being 
' ilangaiibalele ' — a common noun — which changes to a proper 
name by taking the incipient u in place of i. Of the same 
class are ' Umandhlakampisi,' strength of the wolf, a proper 
name; 'Ukwazindhlu,' to know the house, a proper name; 
' Unongenendhlwini,' entrance into a house. Here, in the last 
example, the second part of the compound is in the locative 
case — ' endhlwini,' from ' indlilu,' a house. 

§87. 1. When the compound consists of two nouns, taken 
in the nominative, in some instances both parts may be de- 
clined ; thus, ' umnikazindhlu,' house-keeper, mistress of a 
house ; pi. ' abanikazizindhlu,' house-keepers, or mistresses of 
houses; ' umninimuzi,' master of a kraal; pi. ' abaijinimizi ' 
masters of kraals. So ' udhlilifa,' inheritor ; pi. ' abadhlilifa,' 
or ' abadhlamaf a,' inheritors ; also, ' indhlilifa,' inheritor ; pi. 
' indhlamafa,' or ' izindhlamafa,' inheritors. 

2. In other instances only one (the flrst) of the components 
is declined, declension being thus restricted by the nature of 
the case ; thus, ' umsebelanga,' a ray of the sun ; pi. ' imisebe- 
langa,' rays of the sun ; ' umninimandhla,' master of strength ; 
pi. ' abaninimandhla,' masters of strength. 

3. Sometimes a nominal root is repeated in one and the same 
word. This constitutes a gemination^ or a junction of nouns, 
but not of two different nouns ; hence there is no composition. 
Of this class are such words as ' uhlunguhlungu,' the cotton 
plant ; ' izunguzungu,' the nape ; ' unkulunkulu,' the great one. 

Sect. 3. — JS^ominal Incipients or Preformatives. 

§ 88. 1. All nouns in Zulu consist of two parts — first, the 
uicijnent or preformative, by some called a " prefix ;" and 
secondly, the root or stem ; thus, ' umu-ntu,' ' u-baba, ' isi-buko,' 
' ubu-suku.' 

2. The essential nature and important ofiice of the incipient 
is — {a) to bring the nominal root to light, above the surface, 
as it were, and give it a place among the parts of speech ; (b) 
to express the condition of the noun as to class and number, 
and in a great measure as to case ; and {c) to furnish also, in a 
sense, both the basis or the material, and a model, as it were, 
for all pronouns, especially those of the third person, and for 
the prefixes of the adjectives. (See § 67.) 



52 . CLASSES AND NUMBER OF NOUNS. 

§ 89. 1. The incipients, in all their different forms and num- 
bers, amount to eighteen; viz., %i^ %tin^ tonu^ Hi, i, ^m, i^i, isi, 
uhc, tibu^ ulcit, 6>, aha, ama, izim, izin, izi, and hni. 

2. But by rejecting those which mark the plural ; viz., o, aha, 
a7na, izim^, izin, izi, and hni ; and rejecting also the duplicate, 
contract forms of the singular, as ^^n of iimu, and i of Hi; 
and counting in a mere modification of im (see §24., Rem. 1.), 
there remain but eight incipients ; viz., it, urnu, ili, im, isi, 
iiho, xibu and %iku. 

3. Six of these, viz., u, uimi, ili, im, isi, and ulu, mark the 
singular number ; while two of them, ubio and uhic, have no 
restricted number, being used indiscriminately as singular or 
plural. 

Rem. 1. — The form umu, as just stated (see also §16., V.). is often 
contracted to um, if not also sometimes to u ; ili to i ; and ulu and ubu 
to u ; thus, umzi for umuzi, izivi for ilizwi, etc. 

Rem. 2. — All those dissyllabic forms which terminate in a vowel, as 
ill, ulu, aba, etc., undergo euphonic changes before nominal roots be- 
ginning with a vowel, final i and a of the incipient being elided, and u 
being generally changed to w, but sometimes dropped ; thus, isando for 
isiaiido ; aboni for abaoni, etc. (See § 36., III., 4.) 

Rem. 3.*^0ne and the same prefix in the plural sometimes corres- 
ponds to more than one in the singular ; as ama to i or ili in the 
second class, and to in in the third ; as, izwi or ilizwi, pi. atnazwi ; in- 
doda, pi. amadoda. So uzulu, pi. Amazidu. 

Sect. 4. — Glasses and Number of Noims. 

§ 90. Most nouns have two numbers, the singular and the 
plural, the latter being formed from the former by some 
change, and generally an increase, in the incipient ; thus, iim- 
fana, boy ; abafana, boys ; into, thing ; izinto, things. 

§ 91. Nouns are divided, according to their different incip- 
ients, and the different modes in which they form the plural, 
into eight classes/'^ 

§ 92. I. The first class includes personal nouns whose incip- 
ients in the singular are u, iiin, or iirnit, and which form the 
plural by changing lo into o, and to')n or umu generally into 
aha, sometimes into o ; as, umfana, boy, abafana, boys ; iiinu- 
ntu, person, abantio, persons ; udacle, sister, odade, sisters ; 
umgani, friend, omgani, friends. 

§ 93. Most of the nouns of this (first) class refer to persons, 
though a few are included here, which refer to animals or 
things ; as, umimtu, person ; %imfana, boy ; etc. ; also, uno- 
hemio, a kind of crane, pi. onohemu ; likova, banana, pi. 
olwva / unoliolio, monkey, pi. onohoho ; ugioai, tobacco, pi. 
ogwai ; ufaholweni, half a crown, pi. ofahokveni. 

* See Appendix, Sect. I., 1. 



CLASSES AND NUMBER OF NOUNS. 53 

Rem. 1. — The kind of impersonal nouns most common in this class 
are those which have been Zuluized from other languages, by giving 
them the incipient u in the singular, and o in the plural ; as umese, 
knife, pi. omese. 

Rem. 2. — There are a few nouns, as, umkozi, etc., of a personal char- 
acter, which form the plural by changing um into imi, and hence are 
reckoned with nouns of the sixth class. 

Rem. 3.— The noun umoya or ummoya (see §§30. and 47., Rem. 2.), 
in its primary, impersonal signification, wind, belongs to the sixth 
class, whose laws it follows in forming the plural, imimoya, and also 
in regard to its pronouns, as wona, etc. But in its derived, personal 
signification, spirit, as Hol}^ Spirit, it may follow the laws of the first 
class, making its plural ommoya (or omoya, like nouns in u, udade, 
etc., as from the singular, u-moya), and use all the pronouns of the 
first class, as yena, m, ake. 

§ 94. 1. A proper noun, the name of a single person, some- 
times takes the plural form to specify both the person and his 
€0?7ijxmi/, his party, or people ; thus. Of aim instead of TJfaTtu / 
as, OfaJLic ha Jiamhile, Faku and his company have gone. 

2. a. The root of a tribal noun, sometimes takes the incip- 
ient urn^ to signify one of the tribe ; thus, Umcadi may 
sometimes be used to signify one of the Amacadi tribe. 

h. But the most common and classical incipient in such a 
case is i^ thus, Icadi^ one of the Aviacadi tribe; Iz%d,u^ one 
of the Zulu tribe, or one of the Amazidu. In this case — 
using the incipient i instead of u'}n^ to denote one of a tribe — 
the plural in ama presents no anomaly, being formed regu- 
larly from ^, as in nouns of the second class. 

3. IN^ames denoting a class sometimes change %iin to ama in 
forming the plural ; as uynjpalxtti, a councilor, pi. ainajpalcati' j 
U7)i2?andhla^ an outsider, amapandhla^ outlying districts. 

§ 95. II. The second class of nouns includes all those whose 
incipient, in the singular, is Hi or i^ and which form the plural 
by changing Hi or i into amct / as, ilizwi or izwi, word, pi. 
aviazwi ; igama, name, pi. amcLcjama. 

Rem. — Some nouns belong to this class, whose external appearance 
would seem to put them in some other class ; thus, inwenwe, pearl- 
muscle ; inyeza, sweet potato ; and inyatelo, shoe,— would seem to 
belong to the tliird class, whose incipient is in or im ; and isiko, cus- 
tom ; isango, gate ; and isondo, hoof, — might be thought, from their 
outward form, to belong to the fourth class, whose incipient is isi. 
But the forms of the pronouns for these words, as I, li, alo, lona, and 
the form of the plural, ama, etc., clearly show them to belong to tliis, 
the second, class, having the incipient Hi or i, and not in or isi. 

So the nouns izinyane, the young of an animal ; izibuko, a ford ; izi- 
bulo, first born ; and izinyo, tooth,— seem, from their external form, 
to be the plural of some other class, as of the third or fourth or fifth ; 
but their pronouns, as I, li, alo, lona, and their plurals ; as, amazin- 
yane. amazibuko, etc., show them to be of this, the second, class, with 
the incipient Hi or i, and not izi or izin. 

§ 96. III. The third class of nouns includes all those whose 
incipients, in the singular, are im or in. 



64 . CLASSES AND NUMBER OF NOUNS. 

a. The incipient hn is used before such nominal roots as 
begin with a vowel or with a labial, J, f^ p^ or v (see § 24., 2., 
and Rem. 1.) ; thus, imorne^ imhili, imfe, hnpande. 

h. The incipient in is found before roots beginning with any 
other letter than those above named, — excepting also A, Z, and 
7n^ which take incipients of some other class ; as, indciba^ 
higiiho, indhlu^ iiikosi ; also, umhambo^ isilimo^ isimiso. 

Rem. — The same law holds, of course, in respect to the plural incipi- 
ents, izim and izin. 

§ 97. a. The phiral of nouns in im is made in izi7n ; thus, 
imhenge, basket, ^^l. izirtibenge / mivida^ rain, pi. izhnvtda. 

h. The plural of nouns in m is made, some in izin^ and 
others in anna j thus, hikorao^ a cow, pi. izinlioniO j into, 
thing, pi. izinto ; indoda, man, pi. amadoda ', inshnu, gar- 
den, pi. aniasimu. 

Rem. — A few nouns have two forms of the plural ; as, inkosi, chief, 
pi. amakosi and izinkosi ; inkonyana, calf, pi. izinkonyana, and some- 
times amankonyana. 

§ 98. TV. The /ourth class comprises all those nouns whose 
incipient, in the singular, is isi. They form the plural by 
changing isi into izi ; thus, isikati, time, pi. izikati ; isibiiko, 
glass, pi. izihitho. 

§ 99. Y. The fifth class of nouns embraces all those whose 
incipient, in the singular, is ulu^ or its contracted form u. 

In forming the plural, nouns of this class change u or idit : — 

(«.) To izi^ Avhen the nominal root begins with I • thus, 
ulembu, a spider, pi. izilemhu ; idinii, tongue, pi. iziliini ; 

(h.) To izim (rarely izi), when the root begins with a labial ; 
thus, uhahe, a grass, pi. izihahe, or izimhahe ; icfiidii, the tur- 
tle, pi. izimfiidii ; upape, feather, pi. izimjjape ; and 

{c.) To izin, in all other cases ; thus, uti or idnti, a rod, pi. 
izinti j uclwane, husk or chaff, pi. izindwane. (See §24., 2., 
and Rem. 1.) 

§ 100. YI. The sixth class contains those impersonal nouns 
whose incipient, in the singular, is tun or iimtc, and forms the 
plural by changing um or ^cmit into imi / thus, ttmfida, river, 
pi. imifida ; icmuti, tree, pi. iniiti. A few personal nouns 
belong to this class ; as, %imhloho, friend, pi. imihlobo. (See 
§ 93., Rem. 2.) 

§ 101. YII. 1. The seventh class of nouns includes all those 
whose incipient is id)ii, or its contracted form }t ; as, nhuso, 
face ; lobutyani or utyani, grass ; ^dnikulu, greatness. 

2. Nouns of this class make no distinction in point of num- 
ber, but are used indiscriminately as singular and plural ; 
thus, nbuso^ face, or faces. 



CLASSES AND NUMBER OF NOUNS. 55 

3. To this class belong nouns in the abstract derived from 
adjectives ; as, tthuhulu^ greatness ; uhubi^ evil ; ^tbuinnmidi^ 
sweetness. 

Rem. — When the nominal root begins with a vowel, the %i final of 
uhii is elided, and not changed into iv, since w would be incongruous 
with 6 (see i^ 16., III., 4., and ^25.) ; thus, ubomi, and not ubwomi, for 
ubuomi ; uboya, and not ubwoya, for iibuoya. So, for the same reason, 
the II is dropped, and not changed to iv, in the fragmentary pronoun 
belonging to this class; as, ubuso bami, and not bwami ; while such 
pronouns of the fifth and eighth classes, lu and ku, change u to w, the 
IV being compatible with I and h ; thus, uluti Iwami, ukubona kwami. 

§ 102. YIII. 1. The eighth class includes all those nonns 
whose incipient is uhu ^ ilwi^, ichudhla^ioodi\ tckuhlakanijxo, 
wisdom ; tchusa, morning. 

2. ^N'omis of this class, like those of the seventh, make no 
distinction of number. Thej are all of a verbal character, 
being the same as the infinitive mode ; thus, ukudhla^ food, 
which means also to eat. 

Rem. 1. — The pronouns of this class, kii, kona, etc., are often used in 
a general, indefinite manner, referring to nouns of any and every class, 
number, and person. 

Rem, 2. — Some of the Bantu languages have what is called a dimin- 
utive class of nouns, having, for example, ka for a prefix in the 
singular, and tu for the plural ; as in Yao, kajela, a little hoe, tujela, 
little hoes. In Umbundu (Bihe), the diminutive prefixes are oka and 
otu ; as okandimba, small hare, otundimba, small hares. 

§ 103. Each class of nouns has a fragmentary or genitive 
pronoun of a preformative character, which some have called a 
" euphonic letter," corresponding to the noun's incipient, one 
for the singular, and another for the plural. These pronouns 
or preformatives, which cooperate with a to denote the geni- 
tive case (see § 115), are as follows : — 

For the first class, singular w, plural b. 



u 


second 


a 


1, 




a. 


u 


third 


a 


Jj 




z or a. 


i( 


fourth 


u 


S, 




z. 


ii 


fifth 


u 


Iw, 




z. 


a 


sixth 


u 


w, 




y. 


a 


seventh 


u 


b. 






a 


eighth 


u 


kw. 







§ 104. A general view of the several classes, and of the two 
niimhers of nouns, together with the incipients by which they 
are marked, and the preformatives which they supply, are 
given in the following — 



56 IRKEGULAR, DEFECTIVE, AND REDUNDANT NOUNS. 

Table of the Classes of Nouns. 



M SINGULAR. 








PLURAL. 


^ Incipient. 
I umu, or um <j 


Preform. 
w 


, Example. 
j udade 
"i umfana 


Incipient. Preform. Example. 
jo i h ^ odade. 
I aba f 1 abafana. 


2 ili, or i 


1 


ilizwi 


ama 




a 


amazwi. 


3 im, or in 


y 


i imbuzi ) 
•j inkomo \ 
( indoda 


\ izim 

1 izin 

ama 


[ 


z 

a 


j izimbuzi. 

( izinkomo. 

amadoda. 


4 isi 


s 


isibuko 


izi 




z 


izibuko. 


5 ulu, or u 


Iw 


( uluti 
•< ubambo 
( ulembu 


izin 
izim 
izi 


I 


z 


( izinti. 

< izimbambo. 

( izilembu. 


6 umu, or um 


w 


umfula 


imi 




y 


imifula. 


7 ubu 


b 


ubuso. 








8 uku 


kw 


ukuma. 









Rem. — Some of the nouns of the third class have the same incipient 
ama, in the plural, as nouns of the second class in that number, and 
also the same preformative a ; aud such nouns may be regarded as 
transferred, in the plural, from the third to the second class. In the 
same manner, those nouns of the fifth class which make the plural in 
izi, like the plural of nouns of the fourth class, may be considered as 
transferred, in the plural, to the fourth class. These changes will sim- 
plify the discussion of adjectives and the classification of pronouns, 
and some other parts of the grammar. 



Sect. 5. — Irregular^ Defective^ and Redundant Nouns. 

% 105. 1. Some nouns are irregular in their mode of form- 
ing the plural ; thus, unilungu^ white man, makes the plural 
ahehmgu, instead of ahalungu ; iva or iliva^ thorn, makes the 
plural a^neva^ instead of amava. 

2. A few nouns seem irregular from their having formed 
their plural, doubtless, from an obsolete incipient ; thus, i2i7v- 
ga2% blood, literally, bloods, would seem to be the plural of 
ingazi or ugazi / but the singular, in actual use, is igazi^ 
blood. 

3. A few nouns seem irregular from the fact that their plu- 
ral is formed from a root which is obsolete in Isizulu, though 
it may be in use in some of the cognate dialects. Of this class 
is iso or iliso^ eye, pi. aniehlo. In the Sechuana, where the 
incipient le (li) corresponds to the Zulu '^7^, ma to the Zulu 
ama, and tl to the Zulu hi, the same noun, in the singular, is 
letlo {j=^ilildo in Zulu), and, in the plural, matlo (—ameJilo in 
Zulu.) The Fingoes use amaso, eyes, which is the regular 
plural of iliso or tso, eye. 

§ 106. Some nouns are defective in number, being used only 
in the singular, or only in the plural ; thus, ^iMsi, sweet milk ; 
umusa, mercy ; and some other nouns have no plural ; while 



GENDER OF NOUNS. * 57 

the following, and some others, especially such as denote 
liquids, have no singular ; as, amanzi^ water ; mnandhla^ 
strength ; araahaza, cold ; amasi^ sour or thick milk. 

Rem. — NouDS of the seventh and eighth classes, where one form 
answers for both the singular and plural, are of this defective char- 
acter. These are defective, however, not by any accident or exception, 
but by a law, and in accordance with the genius of the language. 

§ 107- Some nouns are redundant in their incipients, and 
hence in their forms for the singular, or for the plural, or for 
both. 

a. Some nouns have two forms for the singular ; as, ' in- 
kemba ' or ' isinkemba,' a sword, pi. ' izinkemba ;' ' ugongolo ' 
and ' ingongolo,' pole, pi. ^ izingongolo.' 

h. Some nouns have two forms for the plural, and one for 
the singular ; as, ' inkosi,' chief, j)l. ' amakosi ' and ' izinkosi ;' 
^ inkonjana,' calf, pi. ' izinkonyana ' and ' amankonyana.' 

c. A few nouns have two forms for both the singlar and the plural ; 
as, umnyaka, and inyaka, (also unyaka,) year, pi, iminyaka and izin- 
yaka; usuku and insuku, day, pi. izinsuku and amasiikii. 

Rem. — Sometimes, and indeed generally, a difference in the form of 
the plural, or a difference between tAvo forms, whether in the singular 
or the plural, indicates more or less of difference in meaning ; thus, 
urtioya {or lanmoy a), wind, spirit, pi. imimoya, winds; omoya (or om- 
moya), spirits; tniyaka, the jesiv (novyaka, this year); umimyaka, the 
space or period of a year. 

Sect. 6. — Gender of Nouns. 

% 108. 1. G-ender, as a difference in the form of nouns to 
express the natural distinction of sex, is of very limited extent 
in the Isizulu ; and as it rarely affects the declension, even 
when it does exist, it becomes a matter of little or no practical 
importance in the grammar of tlie language. 

2. The only approach to a distinction and an influence of gender, in 
the declension of nouns, is to be found in those of the first and sixth 
classes whose incipient is um; those of a personal character belonging, 
as a general thing, to the first class, and making the plural in aha ; 
while those of an impersonal character belong, as a general thing, to 
the sixth class, and make their plural in imi ; thus, umfana, boy, pi. 
dbafana ; umfula, river, pi. imifula. 

§ 109. 1. The gender of nouns, or their natural distinction 
of sex, is determined, in most cases, merely by the meaning of 
the words, — different words, which have no etymological rela- 
tion to each other, being used to express males and females ; 
thus, 4ndoda,' man; 'umfazi,' wife; 'umfana,' boy; ' in- 
tombi,' or ' intombazana,' girl; 'inkunzi,' or 'iduna,' the male 
of irrational animals, and ' imazi,' or ' insikazi,' the female of 
such animals. 



58 CASES OF NOUNS. 

2. Another mode of expressing the natural distinction of 
sex, or rather an extension of the above, for more specific pur- 
poses, is to use two words — one, to point out the particular 
kind or class of animal, and the other, the natural sex ; thus, 
' inkunzi yenkomo,' or ' inkomo e yinkunzi,' the male of cattle, 
bull ; ' inkunzi yehashi,' or ' ihashi lenkunzi,' the male of 
horses, a stallion ; ' imazi yenkomo,' or ' inkomo e yimazi,' 
the female of cattle, a cow ; ' imazi yehashi,' or ^ ihashi lensi- 
kazi,' the female of horses, a mare. 

So 'umuntu o yindoda,' a person who is a man, or a male 
person ; ' umuntu o ngumf azi,' a person who is a woman, or a 
female person. 

§ 110. The only instances in which the mere form of the 
noun helps to indicate the distinction of natural gender, are 
when the suffix JcaBi, sometimes contracted to azi, is used ; 
thus, ' inkosi,' chief, ' inkosikazi,' chiefess ; ' umlungu,' white 
man, ' umlungukazi ' white woman ; ' ihashi,' horse, ' ihashi- 
kazi,' mare. 

Rem. 1. — Sometimes the final letter or syllable of the noun is cut off, 
before the suffix azi or kazi is added ; thus, inkomazi, a cow, frojn 
inkomokazi ; itokazi, a young heifer, from itole, a calf ; indodakazi, a 
daughter, from indodana, a son. 

Eem. 2. — The noun to which kazi may be suffixed, to denote the fem- 
inine gender, does not always, of itself, and without that suffix, 
denote the masculine ; thus, inkomo may denote a cow or an ox ; but 
inkomokazi denotes a cow, and not an ox ; so inkuku, denotes a fowl, 
a hen, without regard to sex ; but inkukukazi denotes a hen in partic- 
ular, or a fowl of the feminine gender. 

Rem. 3.— The suffix kazi does not always denote the feminine gen- 
der ; it is sometimes used to signify beauty, excellence, or superiority, 
as in age, strength, or knowledge ; thus, ubabakazi, my excellent or 
renowned father ; umutikazi, a fine tree. 

§ 111. The peculiar use of different words to express father 
and mother, according as they stand related to the person 
speaking, the person spoken to, or the person spoken of, 
should not be overlooked ; which is as follows : — 

1. Uhaha, my father. ZTmmne, my mother. 

2. Uyihlo, your father. Umjolw, your mother. 

3. TJyise, his or her father. Unina, his or her mother. 

The particular import of each of these terms ought to be 
carefully learned and observed. 

Sect. 7. — Cases of Nouns. 

§ 112. General Remarks. — 1. There is some question as 
to how many cases should be admitted in the Isizulu. If a 
change of form is essential to constitute a case, there are, 



CASES OF NOUNS. 59 



strictly, only three cases — three varieties of change or falling, 
except that sometimes produced by a pre230sition. These 
might be called the genitive, the locative, and the vocative. 
Or, if the simple ground form, the upright or nominative be 
included and reckoned as a case, this would make four cases. 

2. But if, on the other hand, it should be claimed that the 
use of a preposition constitutes a case, then there must, of 
course, be as many cases at least as there are prepositions, the 
admission of which would encumber the language with many 
new terms, and with a heavy and useless load of distinctions. 

3. There is, however, a convenience, at least in a practical 
grammar, in admitting an accusative case by wdiicli to specify 
the object of an active verb or of a preposition ; and this 
makes, in all, for nouns, live cases, viz., the Nominative, tbe 
Genitive, the Accusative, the Locative, and the Vocative. 

§ 113. I. The NOMINATIVE CASE is the noun in its simple 
form ; and it denotes the subject of a finite verb ; thus, ' um- 
fana,' boy ; ' abantu,' people ; ' ilizwe,' country. 

Rem. — The relation of the noun to the verb finite is pointed out with 
precision by means of a pronoun, which always bears more or less of 
the image of the noun's incipient ; thus, umfana u fikile, the boy he 
has arrived ; abantu ba ya hamba, the people they do go ; ilizwe It vun- 
dile, the country it is fertile. 

§ 114. II. The GENITIVE CASE dcuotcs the relation : 

(a.) Of source, cause, or origin; as, 'umsindo wabantu,' 
noise of the peoj^le ; ' ilizwi lomuntu,' word of a person ; 
'umfundisi wa sEnanda,' the teacher of, at, or from, Inanda. 

{h.) Of ownership, or possession ; as, ' izinkomo zenkosi,' 
cattle of the king : 'izinyao zomfana,' feet of the boy. 

(c.) Of designation, object, or fitness ; as, ' imvu yokuhla- 
tyw^a,' a sheep for slaughter ; ' indao yokwaka,' place to build ; 
* izwe labantu,' country for people ; ' ingubo yomf ana,' blanket 
for the boy. 

Rem. — There are no very strict dividing lines between these several 
relations, as some examples may fall with nearly equal propriety under 
two. or even three, of the above heads, according to the signification 
of the words or the view which the mind takes of the relations. 

§ 115. 1. The first of two nouns in regimen always denotes 
the property or thing possessed, or thing having an origin, 
designation or fitness ; and furnishes either a fragmentary pro- 
noun, or else, as before proper names, an entire pronoun, from 
its incipient, to aid, as it were, the genitive particle a, in show- 
ing the relation between that first or governing noun, and 
the second, which denotes the possessor, author, place of origin, 
etc. 



60 CASES OF NOUNS. 

2. There are two ways of formiDg tlie genitive, the one per- 
taining chiefly to common nouns, the names of things, and the 
other to proper nouns, chiefly the names of persons ; besides 
also a third mode which is connected with the locative, and 
pertains chiefly to proper nouns which are names of places. 

A. When the second or limiting noun — that wliich denotes 
the owner, author, source, or end — is a commion noun, the gen- 
itive is generally formed by prefixing to it (in its nominative 
form), the preformative pronoun of the first, the noun limited 
or possessed, together with the genitive particle a — this parti- 
cle coalescing with the initial vowel of the second noun, and 
making e of a-i^ and o of a-ii^ but simply a of a-a^ and only 
of a-o^ (see §§10. and 16., I.); thus, 41izwi knkosi=ilizwi 
1-a-inkosi,' word of the king; ' isicoko s6>mfana=isicoko s-a- 
umfana,' hat for the boy ; ' ubuso babantu— ubuso b-a-abantu,' 
face of the people; 'izingubo z6>dade=izingubo z-a-odade,' 
clothes of the sisters. 

Eem. — Where the preformative of the genitive, the fragmentary pro- 
noun, is i or n, lu or hu, the one, i, changes to its cognate y, and the u 
of the other changes to w (see § 16., IV.) ; but the preformative a, of 
the plural of the second and thn-d class of nouns, is simply absorbed in 
the genitive particle a (see § 16., I. ) ; thus, inkomo yenkosi^inkomo i- 
a-inkosi, cow of the chief ; imikono yomfana=imikono i-a-umfana, 
arms of the boy ; uyise wabantu=uyise u-a-bantu, fatlier of the peo- 
ple ; iikiiina kwomuntu=ukuma kii-a-umuntu, standing of a person ; 
amadwala omfula=amadwala a-a-umfulo , rocks of the river. Some- 
times, however, the initial vowel of the limiting noun is elided ; thus, 
impi ya 'nyak' enye ; umzi wa 'muntu 'munye; a si 'bantu baHuto. 

B. When the second or limiting noun is proper, — the name 
of a person, — in forming the genitive, the initial vowel (of the 
nominative form) is dropped, and the genitive particle a is 
hardened by k, making ka, which is sometimes preceded by 
the separable, simple pronoun, instead of the inseparable, frag- 
mentary, of the first or limited noun ; thus, ' izinkomo zi ka 
'Mpande,' cattle of Umpande ; 'ilizwi li ka 'Tixo,' or 'ilizwi 
ka 'Tixo,' the word of God ; ' umfazi ka 'Faku,' wife of Ufaku. 

Rem. 1. — The personal pronoun, of the limited noun, in the first, 
third, and sixth classes, singular, and in the second and sixth, plural, 
is generally omitted ; and in all other instances the pronoun is gen- 
erally, though not always, used ; thus, umfana ka 'Nodwengu, the boy 
or servant of Nodwengu ; inkomo ka 'Sibekana, (but sometimes, in- 
komo yi ka 'Sibekana,) Usibekana's cow ; umkonto ka 'Mbopa, Umbo- 
pa's spear ; amazwi ka 'Mose, (sometimes, amazwi a ka Mose,) the 
words of Moses. 

Rem. 2. — Some common personal nouns often form the genitive in 
the same way as proper nouns, names of persons ; particularly, ubaba, 
umame, uyise, unyoko, unina ; also pronouns of the definitive form ; 
thus, izinkomo zi ka ''baba, or izinkomo ka, 'baba, and sometimes, izin- 
komo zobaba, cattle of my father; so izinkomo ka mina, ox izinkomo 
zami, my cattle. 



CASES OF NOUNS. 61 

Eem. 3. — Proper nouns, the names of tribes and sects, form the gen- 
itive in the same manner as common nouns ; thus, inkosi'yAmazulu, 
chief of the Amazuhi, or of the Zulus ; izivelo zAbafarisi, customs of 
the Pharisees. 

C. When the second or hmiting nonn is proper, — the name 
of a place, river, or Inonntain, — and denotes the place of ori- 
gin, abode, or existence, it is generally pnt in the locative case, 
and preceded directly by the euphonic s, bnt indirectly by the 
genitive particle a, together with the fragmentary pronoun of 
the first, the limited noun whose origin, abode, or existence is 
specified ; thus, ' umfana wa sEnanda,' a boy of or from 
Inanda ; ' abantu ba sEmlazi,' the people of or from Umlazi ; 
' inkomo ya sErini,' a cow from the Cape Colony. 

Rem. 1. — Sometimes a common noun is used in the same manner — 
put in the locative under the genitival regimen ; thus, umteto wa sesi- 
lungwini, law of the white man ; igwdbaha la semzini, the crow of the 
kraal, that is, another's amasi (thick milk), which a man refuses to eat 
among strangers, lest he should return thither and be found guilty of 
immorality. 

Rem. 2. —This form of the genitive is used also with pronouns gov- 
erned by a preposition ; thus, ilizwe la kiibo, their country, or a country 
of theirs ; abantu ba kiti, our people ; izinkomo za kini, your cattle. 

§ 116. 1. From one of the foregoing paragraphs, (A,) it 
appears that there may be as many different forms of the gen- 
itive case in a common noun, as there are different fragmen- 
tary or genitive pronouns in the nouns limited, which are nine 
in all; viz., w, Z, y, s, lw,h, kw, a, and s. 

These different forms may be' illustrated in the word 
' inkosij' chief, in the following — 

Scheme of the Genitive of a Common Noun. 

CLASS. SINGULAR, (GENITIVE) ; PLURAL, (GENITIVE). 

1. Umfana, wenkosi ; abafana benkosi. 

2. Uizwi lenkosi ; amazwi enkosi. 

3. Inkomo yenkosi ; izinkomo zenkosi. 

4. Isibuko senkosi ; izibuko zenkosi. 

5. Uluti 1 wenkosi ; izinti zenkosi. 

6. XJmuti wenkosi ; imiti yenkosi. 

7. Ubuso benkosi. 

8. Ukuma kwenkosi. 

2. From another of the foregoing paragraphs, (B,) it appears 
that the name of a person in the genitive case is one for all 
classes, and that it is uniformly preceded by the genitive parti- 
cle ka, whatever may be the class and number of the limited 
noun ; though the pronoun, when one is used before ka, takes 



62 CASES OF NOUNS. 

a variety of forms, according to the incipient of the limited 
nomi, as may be seen in the following — 



CLASS. 


SINGULAR, (GENITIVE) ; 


PLURA.L, (GENITIVE). 


1. 


Umfana ka 'Faku ; 


abafana (ba) ka 'Faku. 


2. 


Ilizwi (li) " 


amazwi (a) " 


3. 


Inkomo (yi) " 


izinkomo (zi) . " 


4. 


Isibnko (si) " 


izibnko (zi) " 


5. 


Ulnti (In) 


izinti (zi) " 


6. 


Umuti " 


imiti (yi) " 




7. Ubnso (b 


a) ka 'Fakn. 




8. Uknma (ku) " 



3. From the other foregoing paragraph, (C,) it appears that 
the form of the genitive nsed with the locative case of proper 
nonns, the names of places, varies according to the class and 
nnmber of the limited noun from whence the fragmentary 
genitive pronoun is derived ; though the form of the limiting 
noun itself, in the locative, is one and the same, whatever may 
be the form of the limited noun, as shown in the following — 

Scheme of the Genitive of a Proper Noun — the name of a place in 
the Locative. 

CLASS. SINGULAR, (GENITIVO-LOC); PLURAL, (GENITIVO-LOC.) 



1. 


U mtana wa 


siinanci 


[a ; abaiana ba s 


2. 


Igama la 




amagama a 


3. 


Inkomo ya 




izinkomo za 


4. 


Isitelo sa 




izitelo za 


5. 


Uluti Iwa 




izinti za 


6. 


Umuti wa 




imiti ya 




7. 


Ubukulu ba sEnanda. 




8. 


Ukuma kwa " 



§ 117. III. The ACCUSATIVE, or objective case denotes the 
object of a transitive verb or of a preposition. 

In form, it is the same as the nominative, save when its 
initial vowel coalesces with the final vowel of the preposition, 
or is elided to facilitate utterance ; thus, ' si ya bona umfana,' 
we do see a boy ; ' si bizile abantu,' Ave have called the people ; 
* si hamba nobaba,' we go with father ; ' si vele ku 'bantu,' we 
come from the people. 

§ 118, lY. 1. Tlie LOCATIVE case denotes the place at, in, 
or ahout which a thing is, or is done, or whence or lohithe?' it 
proceeds. The more specific idea involved in this case, as in 



CASES OF NOUNS. 63 

fact in all tlie cases, must be determined, in a great measure, by 
the connection ; tlms, ' emutini,' from ' umnti,' tree, may sig- 
nify, in the tree, on the tree, under the tree, to, from, or about 
the tree, according to the nature of the subject, and the mean- 
ing of the words used in connection with it. 

2. a. The formation of this case, in nearly all common 
nouns, involves two inflections ; one in the incipient, changing 
the initial vowel into ^, or sometimes into o y and another in 
the termination; and, in some instances, certain euphonic 
changes are made also in the heart of the word, according to 
§§ 33 and 34. 

5. Final a changes to eni ; thus, igula^ egideni. 
Final e " eni ^ thus, Uizwe^ elizweni. 

Final i " ini ; thus, itinuti^ emxvtini. 

Final o " weni ; thus, unyao^ onyaweni. 

Final it " wini ; thus, cibantu^ ebantwini. 

c. When ^, in, mh, or^, occur after the first syllable of the 
root, and especially in the last, they generally undergo a 
change of a euphonic character, § 34, thus : — 

JB changes to ty ; as, indehe, endetyeni. 
M " ny ; as, umlomo^ emlonyeni. 

MB " nj ; as, isibcmibo^ esihanjeni. 

P "" ty ; as, isibopo, esibotyeni. 

§ 119. To these general rules (stated in the last paragraph), 
for forming the locative case, there are many exceptions, some 
of which are the following : — 

{a.) Some nouns generally retain 5 unchanged in the final 
syllable ; as, ' ubabe,' ' elubabeni ;' ' inkabi,' ' enkabini ;' ' in- 
taba,' 'entabeni;' 'igaba.' ' egabeni,' or 'egatyeni.' 

(b.) Some nouns generally retain ra unchanged in the loca- 
tive ; as, ' igama,' ' egameni ;' ' iqoma,' ' eqomeni,' sometimes 
' eqonyeni ;' ' insimu,' ' ensimini ;' ' izinkomo,' ' ezinkomeni.' 
In the last two words the lo, which would be formed from ii 
and 0, is dropped, being incompatible with m — except very 
rarelv it is heard in the last of the two ; thus, ' ezinkomweni.' 
(See §25.) 

{c.) Some nouns often retain p unchanged in the locative ; 
as, ' upape,' ' opapeni ;' ' insipo,' ' ensipweni ;' ' isihlepu,' ' esi- 
hlepwini.' Some nouns use both forms ; as, 'impupu,' 'em- 
pupwini ' or ' emputyini,' and sometimes ' empupini.' 

{d.) Those nouns in which final o or u i^ preceded by 5, mh^ 
or p, generally change o into e7ii^ and u into m«, when the 
preceding consonant is changed into its corresponding sub- 



64 CASES OF NOUNS. 

stitiite ; but into iveni or wiiii, when the preceding consonant 
remains unchanged ; as, ' isihlobo,' ' esihlotyeni ;' ' isigubu,' 
' esigiib\\ani,' ' esigubini,' ' esigutjini/ and sometimes ' esigu- 
jini ' (see § 34., h changing to j before i) ; ' intambo,' 
'entambweni' or 'entanjeni;' 'imihambo,' ' emihambweni ' or 
' emihanjeni ;' ' isihlepn,' ^ esihlepwini ;' ' insipo,' ' ensipweni ;' 
' mncopo,' ' emcotyeni ;' ' nbucopo,' ' ebncotyeni ;' ' impupu,' 
' empntyini ' or ' empupwini.' But where final 6> or ^ is 
preceded by ??^, and that consonant remains unchanged, o 
sometimes changes to eni^ and u to ini ,' as, 'izinkomo,' ' ezin- 
komeni,' rarely ' ezinkomweni ;' ' insimu,' ' ensimini ;' ' indhlu ' 



Rem. — Though the euphonic consonantal changes are sometimes neg- 
lected, and some of them, in some words, very generally, by most 
tribes and persons ; yet in most cases, and especially where more or 
less of incompatibility is .involved, as in hw, mw, andpw, they are care- 
fully observed by the best speakers, and must be regarded as decidedly 
the best, most classic style. 

§ 120. 1. Some nouns, which, in other cases, usually have 
the contracted form of the incipient, often replace the full 
form in the locative case ; as, ' utyani,' ' ebutyanini;' ^ udaka,' 
' eludakeni ;' ' izwe,' ' elizweni.' 

2. When nouns of the fifth or seventh class form the loca- 
tive with a contracted incipient, the initial vowel u is generally 
changed to o instead of e / as, ' udaka,' ' odakeni ;' ' udonga,' 
' odongeni ' or ' eludongeni ;' ' uzwani,' ' ozwanini ;' ' ulwanga,' 
'olwangeni;' 'unyao,' ' onyaweni ;' ' ubabe,' ' elubabeni.' 

§ 121. 1. A few common nouns form the locative by chang- 
ing only the initial vowel, the termination remaining unin- 
flected ; as, ' ubusuku,' ' ebusuku ;' ' immi,' ' emini ;' ' ihlobo,' 
'ehlobo;' ' ubusika,' 'ebusika;' 'ikaya,' ' ekaya ;' so, ' em- 
hlana,' ' ehlane,' ' enhla,' ' empumalanga,' ' entyonalanga,' 
' elwandhle ' or ' olwandhle.' 

2. Most proper nouns — names of rivers and places — form the 
locative in the same way, by simply changing the initial vowel 
into e or o ; thus, ' Inanda,' ' Enanda ;' ' Isibubulungu,' ' Esi- 
bubulungu ;' ' Uralazi,' ' Emlazi ;' ' TJtugela,' ' Otugela,' or 
' Elutugela ;' ' Uhlanga,' ' Ohlanga ;' ' Isangwana,' ' Osang- 
wana.' 

3. A few proper nouns, however, form the locative like 
most common nouns, by inflecting both the beginning and the 
end of the word ; as, ' IJmkambati,' ' Emkambatini ;' ' Umpon- 
godwe,' ' Empongodweni,' and sometimes ' Empongodwe ;' 
' Isidumbi,' ' Esidumbini ' or ' Esidunjini ;' ' Umdhloti,' 
' Emdhloti,' and occasionally ' Emdhlotini ;' so, ' Ozwatini f 
' Obonjeni.' 



VOCATIVE 65 

§ 122. The locative case of proper names of rivers and 
places is often combined with the genitive, as already stated, 
(§ 115., C.,) to indicate the source, origin, or residence of a 
person or thing; thus, , ' nmuntu wa sEnanda,' a person of or 
from Inanda ; ' amatje a sEsibubulungu,' the rocks of or on 
the Bluff. 

. Eem.— The s in these and similar examples, thus iva sEnanda, is a 
mere euphonic, (see §35., 5,,) inserted to preserve the genitive particle 
a, and prevent a disagreeable hardness in the flow of speech. It is also 
used in the same manner where the locative is preceded by a pronoun, 
as II, ni, li, ha, or by a preposition, as na, nga, kwa, etc.; thus, u sem- 
fuleni, he is at or in the river ; ba sesibayeni, they are in the kraal ; ba 
se mi nga semutini, they are still standing by the tree ; u sezulwini na 
sezmdaiveni zonke. he is in heaven and every w^here. 

§ 123. Y. The vocative case is that form of the noun in 
which a person is addressed. It is derived from the nomin- 
ative by eUding the initial vowel ; thus, ^JVkosi, king. Lord, 
from 'inkosi;' 'Ja^a,. father, from 'ubaba;' ^madodana, sons, 
from 'amadodana;' hjiajiosi, kings, from 'amakosi.' So 
proper names; as, ^Faku^ from 'IJfaku;' ^Dingani from 
' Udingani ;' ^Mctkobeni from ' Umakobeni.' 

Rem. 1. — Nouns of the fifth class, contracted form of the incipient, 
replace the full form of the incipient, and elide the initial vowel, in 
the vocative; as, 'lidi, from idi or uluti ; Itibisi, from ubisi or idubisi. 
But nouns of other classes often neglect to replace the full form of the 
incipient in this case; as, 'zinyo, from izinyo or ilizinyo; yizwa, Himgu 
(from ilungu). 

Rem. 2.— Nouns of the first class making the plural in the incipient 
o, from the singular u, never elide the initial o. but often prefix b in the 
vocative ; thus, odade or bodade, as yizwani. odade, hear, ye sisters ; 
so yizivanini, bobaba, hear, ye fathers ; yizwanini, bomame, hear, ye 
mothers. 

Rem. 3. -The final vowel of some nouns, not only in the vocative, 
but in all the cases, is sometimes passed over in silence, especially in 
rapid articulation, and after n or s ; as, 'Dingaii'; 'Nkos'; 'Makoben.' 

Rem. 4. —In familiar address, at the beginning of a remark or speech, 
the vocative is often preceded by e ; as, E! 'Nkosi. This is sometimes 
heard also m solemn address, as in prayer. 

Rem. 5.— In calling at a distance, the vocative is generally preceded 
by we; as, We! 'Faku. 

Rem. 6. — In soleuaii address and suplication, the vocative is some- 
times preceded by au; as, An! Wkosi! O Lord ! 

Rem. 7. — The vocative sometimes makes use of the suffix ndini to in- 
dicate endearment or compassion ; as, 'ndodandini, my good man. 

§ 124. To the foregoing principles and remarks, a con- 
densed illustration of the more common forms of the cases 
may be added in tlie following — 



66 ADJECTIVES. 

Scheme of the Declension of Nouns. 

I. DECLENSION OF COI^EMON NOUNS. 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

IN'om. Umu7itu^ person ; ccbaniio^ persons. 

Gen. ( W)o7Jiimtu, of a person ; {io)cibantu, of persons. 

Ace. UiminUi^ person ; ctbanUi^ persons. 

Loc. Emiintwini^ in a person ; ebantwini^ in persons. 

Yoc. ^Mimtu, O person ; ^hcmtii^ O persons. 

II. DECLENSION OF A PROPER NAME OF A PERSON. 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

]N"om. Ufaku ; Ofaku. 

Gen. Ka^Fakib', {w\a wOfaku. 

Ace. Ufaku I Ofakio. 

Loc. 



Yoc. ^Fakio / Bofahu or Ofaku. 

Rem. — When the name of a person is used in the genitive plural it 
takes the euphonic w before it, in which case the genitive a is not 
hardened by k^ but combined with the fragmentary pronoun of the 
governing noun ; as, umhila wa ivOnodivengu, the maize of Unodwengu 
and company. 

A PROPER NAME OF A PLACE. 

PLURAL wanting. 



III. 


DECLENSION OF 1 




SINGULAR. 


Xom. 


Inanda. 


Gen. 


( TF)<2 sEnanda. 


A.CC. 


Inanda. 


Loc. 


Enanda. 


Yoc. 


'mvnda. 



Rem.— The preformative w is used in the genitive, as given in the 
above tables, only when the noun limited is of the first or sixtli class 
singular, as iiinuzi ivomuntii. When the noun limited belongs to some 
other class or number, some other preformative is used ; thus, igama 
lomuntu; isifo somuntu, etc. (See jjgllS., 116.) 



CHAPTER III. 

ADJECTIYE8. 

§ 125. The number of proper Adjectives in Isizulu is small, 
but the deficiency is made up in part by the use of nouns and 
verbs ; thus, the noun amandhla., strengtli, often supplies the 
place of the adjective strong ^ so the verb hiiujile.^ from ul\u 
lunga., to be straight or good, supplies tiie place of an adjec- 
tive of that import. The adjective always follows the noun it 
describes. 



DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 67 

Sect. 1. — Derivation of Adjectives. 

§ 126. Derivative adjectives, which are few, are formed 
chieiij from nouns, other adjectives, and verbs. 

A. 1. Feom nouns are formed adjectives, or more properly, 
nouns are often used as adjectives, by rejecting the initial 
vowel of the noun ; as, rnanzi^ wet, from mnanzi^ water ; 
thus, si manzi^ we are wet ; htihcdi^ sharp, from tobulcali^ 
sharpness ; thus, izemhe li hukcdi, the ax is sharp ; hutuntu^ 
dull, from idnduntu., dullness; thus, izemhe li hiduntu^ the ax 
is dull. 

2. Sometimes the noun, used as an adjective, retains its full 
form, as iholo^ roughness ; thus, inshnbi i yiholo, the iron is 
rough — literally, is roughness ; so, izinhliziyo zetu zi nga- 
inatye^ our hearts are hard — literally, are stones. 

3. But more frequently the noun used as an adjective is 
joined to the noun, or pronoun, qualified, by the preposition 
na /* thus, %i nolaMt (w na-tdaha), he is angry — literally, he 
with anger, or he has anger ; inyoni i nejuhane^ the bird is 
swift — is with, or has speed ; si namahaza^ or si hnakaza^ we 
are cold. 

4. The noun used as an attributive adjective may take the 
relative of tlie qualified noun before the preposition na / thus, 
xbTmintii oiamandhla, a person who is with (i. e., has) 
strength, a strong person ; indoda e nolaka^ an angry man. 

§ 127. B. Fkom adjectives are formed diminutive adjec- 
tives, by means of the sufiix ana, and by such euphonic 
changes as the language requires, in the same manner as 
diminutive nouns are formed from other nouns, (see § 79., 5., 
«., 5., etc.); tliQs, hanzi, broad, hanzana, broadish ; mldope, 
white, 7)%hlotyaiia, whitish ; kidu, large, kidwana, largish ; 
ncinyane, small, ncinyanyana, very small ; onlce, all, onlcana, 
a moderate wliole, about all ; ningi, ningana, a pretty good 
number, considerable many. 

Rem.— Ow/coHft sometimes signifies, all together, one and all, all 
alike, every one; thus, izin'komo zi file zohkana, the cattle are dead 
one and all ; ba miikile honkana, they have gone every one of them ; 
s' onile sonkana, we are all alike guilty. 

§ 128. C. Feom verbs are derived what may be called ver- 
bal adjectives. Such adjectives are generally derived from 
those verbs wliich express some quality or ^^roperty ; thus, . 

* Nouns are used as adjectives in the same way in other Bantu lan- 
guages ; as in Yao, the preposition a taking the concord prefix or 
pronoun of the qualified noun before it ; as, nyuviba ja {=ji-a) ma- 
ganga, a house of stones, i. e., a stone house. Verbal adjectives with 
an active meaning are formed from the infinitive by prefixing the pre- 
position a preceded by the preformative or class characteristic of the 
noun limited ; as, makalo wa [u-a) kutema, a knife of cutting, i. e., a 
sharp knife. 



68 CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

Lungile, straight, right, good, from uku limga, to be straight, etc.; 
lamhile. hungry, from uku lamba, to be hungry ; sabekayo or sdbekile, 
from uku sabeka. to be fearful. The form of the verb thus used is gen- 
erally the present perfect, as given above ; thus, lambile, sabekile. 
Of this class are all verbs belonging to the subjective species ; as, tan- 
deka, lovable ; zondeka, hateful ; bambeka, apprehensible ; tambeka, 
sloping. 

Rem. — The verbal adjective generally takes on the suffix yo or ko ; 
as, umuntu o liingileyo, a good person, or a person who is good. In 
Yao, verbal adjectives with a passive meaning are formed from the 
verbal stem by changing final a into e ; thus, from ku uwa, to die, they 
get uive, dead ; as iiiundu jua~m~uwe {or jiiamuwe) a dead person. 

S EOT, 2 . — Classes of A djectives. 

§ 129. Adjectives may be divided into two classes — the one 
called proper^ or genuine ; and the other factitvous, or snbsti- 
tntional. 

1. The jproper genuine adjectives are those which are not 
obviously derived from any other part of speech, but are used 
apparently first and only as adjectives in the common accepta- 
tion of the term ; as, mhlope^ white ; mnandi^ sweet ; Iculu^ 
great ; hle^ nice. 

2. Factitious^ substitutional, or improper adjectives are 
those words which are sometimes used adjectively ; though 
primarily, and in their most approprite use, they belong to 
some other part of speech, as to nouns or verbs ; such are the 
nouns, amancUda^ strength; ijuhane, speed; nhukali, sharp- 
ness ; and such the verbs, lungile^ good ; lamhile^ hungry ; 
snhekde^ fearful. 

§ 130. An adjective, whetlier proper or factitious, may be 
used in two ways : — 

(rt.) As a mere attributive^ an accessory, or a modifier of the 
noun to which it belongs ; thus, umuntu oiiikidu^ a person 
who (is") great, or a great person ; alantu ahahidu, the people 
who (are) great, or the great people ; ahantu aha namandJda^ 
the people who (are with or have strength, or the strong peo- 
ple ; or, 

Q).) The adjective may be used as a direct predicate ; thus, 
umuntu uonhidtt, the person (is) great; ahantu hal'idu the 
people (are) great ; ahantu ha namandhla, the people are 
strong. 

Sect. ?>.— Inflection of Adjectives. 

§ 131. All proper adjectives are inflected by taking prefixes 
which conform to the incipients of tlie nouns with which they 
agree in respect to both class and number ; thus, 

JJmfana umkulu, the boy is great ; abafana bakulu, the boys are 
great ; ilizwe likidu, the country is great ; ilizwe elikidu, a great 
country ; abafana abakulu, large boys. 



INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. " 69 

§ 132. Aside from some euphonic variations in tlie prefix, 
which depend partly npon the root of the adjective, and 
partly upon the nominal incipient, there are two general forms 
of the prefix, or two kinds of inflection, according as the adjec- 
tive is used, either as a mere attributive^ or as a direct 
2)redicate. 

§ 133. A. The prefix of the adjective, used as an attribu- 
tive^ consists of the relative particle a (the same as the geni- 
tive ci) combined, generally, with the full form of the nominal 
incipient ; and so corresponds to the class and number of the 
noun with which the adjective agrees ; thus, 

Umfana omkulu {=a-um-kulu), a large boy ; inkomo eiikulu {=a-i'n- 
kulu), a large cow, or a cow which is large ; izwe or ilizwe eiikulu 
{=a-ili-kulu), a large country, or a country which is large ; isibuko 
esivmyama, a black glass ; abantu abamnyama, black people ; izinto 
ezinkulu, large things. 

Rem. 1. — When the root of the adjective begins with m, as in tntoti, 
mnandi, mnyama, mpofu, the m and n final of the nominal incipient 
are omitted in the prefix of the adjective ; thus, uinbila omtoti, (not 
om-mtoti,) sweet corn ; izinto ezimnandi, nice things ; imvu emnyama, 
a black sheep ; amatole ampofu, buff colored calves ; irnifula emtoti, . 
sweet rivers. 

Rem. 2. — Final m and n. also mu, ma. and 7ni, of the nominal incip- 
ient, are omitted in the prefix of the adjectives bo^nvu and nzima ; as, 
imbuzi ebomvu, a red goat ; into enzima, a heavy thing ; umuntu 
obomvu, a red person ; amatole abomvu, red calves. 

But before the adjectives, ncinyane, and ningi, the final ???, 
and the full forms amci and imi^ of the nominal incipient, are 
used in the prefix ; as, uvifiila omncinyane^ a small river ; 
amatole ama^icinyaiie^ small calves ; imitl eminingi^ many 
trees. 

Rem. 3.— When the root of the adjective begins with a labial, as b. /, 
and the incipient of the noun, with which the adjective agrees, ends 
in n, this n of the incipient is changed, in the prefix, into m, according 
to principles already stated (§24.); thus, inkomo emhi, a bad cow. 
But the adjective bomvu, as already remarked, and to which banzi 
should be added, rejects both m and n from its prefix. 

Rem. 4. — The prefix of some adjectives, referring to nouns of the 
first and sixth classes, singular, often takes the second or furtive it, — 
the full form of the nominal incipient,— especially when the accent 
falls on it ; thus, umuntu omubi, instead of ombi, a bad person ; umfana 
omunye or omnye, another boy. In the same manner, sometimes the 
full, and sometimes the abbreviated forms of some other incipients, are 
used in the prefix of some adjectives ; as, imisebenzi embi or emibi, 
bad works ; imiti emide, tall trees. 

§ 134. The inflection of the adjective as a mere attributive 
— the different forms of the prefix, according to the class and 
number of the noun to which it relates, and according to most 
of the variations required by euphony, as given in the above 
rules and remarks — may be presented in a more condensed 
manner in the following — 



70 



ADJECTIVES DECLINED AS ATTRIBUTIVES. 



Table of Adjectives declined as Attributives. 



CLASS. 


NOUNS. 




ADJECTIVES. 

A 






KULU. 


BI. 


MNANDI. 


r 1. 

S 2. 


Umfana 


om-kulu 


om-bi 


0-mnandi 


Ilizwi 


eli-kulu 


eli-bi 


eli-mnandi 


IJ 3. 


Into 


en-kulu 


em-bi 


e-mnandi 


Isibuko 


esi-kulu 


esi-bi 


esi-mnandi 


. 6. 


Uluti 


olu-kiilu 


olu-bi 


olu-mnandi 


[Jmuti 


om-kulu 


om-bi 


o-mnandi 


7. 


Ubnso 


obu-kulu 


obu-bi 


obu-mnandi 


8. 


Ukudhla 


oku-kulu 


oku-bi 


oku-mnandi 




fl- 


Abafana 


aba-kulu 


aba-bi 


aba-mnandi 


, T 


2. 


Amazwi 


ama-kulu 


ama-bi 


a-mnandi 


1— 1 


3. 


Izinto 


ezin-kulu 


ezim-bi 


ezi-mnandi 


4. 


Izibuko 


ezi-kdu 


ezi-bi 


ezi-mnandi 


^ 


5. 


Iziiiti 


ezin-kulu 


. ezim-bi 


ezi-mnandi 




16. 


Imiti 


emi-kulu 


emi-bi 


e-mnandi 



Rem. — Adjectives, (used as attributives,) whose root begins with m, 
also, bomvu, banzi, and nzima, are declined like mnandi ; those whose 
roots begin with a labial, except bomvu and banzi, are declined like 
bi ; and others like kulu. 



§ 135. B. The adjective used as di predicate makes no use of 
the relative particle a, like the adjective used as an attribu- 
tive ; and, in the present tense, no use is made of a copula or 
substantive verb, like the English is^ are, etc.; but it takes for 
its prefix, either a full or an abbreviated form of the incipient, 
and besides this is sometimes preceded also by the simple per- 
sonal pronoun of the noun with which it agrees and of which 
it is predicated ; thus, ' umfana umkulu,' the boy is large ; ' in- 
doda inkulu,' the man is large ; ' isibaya sikulu,' the fold is 
large ; ' umuzi umkulu,' the kraal is large ; ' ubuso bukulu,' 
the face is large ; ' abafana bakulu,' the boys are large ; ' am- 
adoda makulu,' the men are large ; ' izibaya zikulu,' the folds 
are large ; ' imizi mikulu,' the kraals are large. ' IJmfana ka 
'mkulu,' the boy is not large ; ' indoda ka inkulu,' oj* ' a inkulu,' 
the man is not large ; ' isibaya ka si sikulu,' the fold is not 
large; 'umuzi ka umkulu,' or 'a umkulu,' the kraal is not 
large ; ' ubuso ka bu bukulu,' or ' a bu bukulu,' the face is not 
large ; ' abafana ka ba bakulu,' or ' a ba bakulu,' the boys are 
not large ; ' amadoda a wa makulu,' the men are not large. 

Rem. 1.— When the incipient of the noun is a monosyllable, most 
adjectives, used as predicates, take its fuller form as a prefix ; thus, 
umfana umkulu, the boy (is) great ; inkomo inkulu, the cow (is) great ; 
umfula umkulu, the river (is) great. 



ADJECTIVES DECLINED AS PREDICATES. 



71 



Rem. 2.— Those adjectives, however, whose root begins with m, and 
also bomvu, and tizima, take only the initial vowel of the monosyllabic 
incipient, and only the initial also of the incipients ama and imi 
(second and sixth classes, plural) ; thus, umfana umnandi, the boy is 
well : inkomo ibomvu, the cow is red ; amatole amnyama, the calves 
are black ; imiti imtoti, the herbs (medicines) are sweet. 

Rem. 3. — («.) When the incipient of the noun is a dissyllable, most 
adjectives, used as predicates, elide its initial vowel, and take the 
second syllable as a prefix ; thus, ilizwe libi, the country is bad ; isi- 
buko simnyama, the glass is black ; uluti hikulu, the rod is large ; 
izinkomo zinkulu, the cattle are large ; abantu baningi, the people are 
many. 

(£>.) But, as before remarked, the dissyllabic incipients, ama and imi, 
give the initial vowel for a prefix before adjectives in m, and before 
bomvu and nzima ; as, amatole amnyama, the calves are black ; though 
they elide that vowel and give the second syllable before other adjec- 
tives ; as, amatole makulu, the calves are large ; amanzi mabi, the 
water is bad. 

Rem. 4. — {a.) Sometimes the incipient of the first and sixth class sin- 
gular, um umu, gives the prefix mu instead of um, and sometimes the 
full form mav be heard ; thus, umujitu mude, or umude, the person is 
tall. (See § 133., Rem. 4.) 

(b.) In the same manner, sometimes a full and sometimes an abbre- 
viated form of some other incipients, particularly a^na and imi, or ma 
and mi, are use as a prefix of predicate adjectives ; thus, imiti imide 
or mide, the trees are tall. 

Rem. 5. — Adjectives whose root begins with a labial, except banzi 
and bomvu, change the final n of the nominal incipient into m in the 
prefix, as in case of adjectives used as attributives (see § 133., Rem. 8.) ; 
thus, into imbi, the thing is bad. 

g 136. The inflection of the adjective as a predicate, or the 
different forms of its prefix, when so used, may be briefly 
illustrated by the following — 



Table of Adjectives declined as Predicates. 



CLASS. NOUNS. 



ADJECTIVES. 



^i 4 






Umfana 

Uizwi 

Into 

Isibuko 

Uluti 

Umfula 

Ubuso 
Ukudhla 

Abafana 

Amazwi 

Izinto 

Izibuko 

Izinti 

Imifula 



KULU. 

um-kulu 

li-kulu 

in-kulu 

si-kulu 

lu-kulu 

um-kulu 

bu-kulu 
ku-kulu 

ba-kulu 

ma-kulu 

zin-kolu 

zi-kulu 

zin-kulu 

mi-kulu 



BI. 

um-bi 

li-bi 

im-bi 

si-bi 

lu-bi 

um-bi 

bu-bi 
ku-bi 

ba-bi 

ma-bi 

zim-bi 

zi-bi 

zim-bi 

mi-bi 



MNANDI. 

u-mnandi 

li-mnandi 

i-mnandi 

si-mnandi 

lu-mnandi 

u-mnandi 

bu-mnandi 
ku-mnandi 

ba mnandi 

a-mnandi 

zi-mnandi 

zi-mnandi 

zi-mnandi 

i-mnandi 



7:2 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

Rem.— Adjectives, (used as predicates,) whose root begins with m, 
also • bomvLi,' 'banzi,' and ' nzima,' are declined like mnandi ; those 
whose roots begin with a labial, except • bomvu ' and 'banzi,' are de- 
clined like hi ; and others like kulii. 

§ 137. 1. The agreement of the adjective, both as an attrib- 
utive and as a predicate, with pronouns of the first and second 
persons, singular and plural, so far as there is anything pecul- 
iar in it, will be more properly stated and illustrated in Syntax, 
as belonging rather to the construction of propositions. But a 
few examples may be given in this connection ; thus, ' ngi 
mkulu,' I am great ; ' ngi mnandi,' I am well ; ' ngi mubi,' I 
am bad ; ' ngi nzima,' I am heavy ; ' ngi bomvu,' I am red ; 
' ngi muhle,' I am pretty ; ' ngi mude,' I am tall ; ' ngi mfut- 
yane,' I am short ; ' ngi mdala,' I am old. 



' U mkulu,' thou art great , 



mubi,' thou art bad ; ' u nzima,' thou art heavy ; ' u bomvu,' 
thou art red. 

'Si bakulu,' we are large; 'si mnandi,' we are well; 'si 
babi,' we are bad ; ' si nzima,' we are heavy ; ' si bafutyane,' 
we are short ; ' si bomvu,' we are red ; ' si badala,' we are old ; 
' si bade,' we are tall ; ' si bahle,' we are well ; ' si mtoti,' we 
are sweet. 

' Ni bakulu,' ye are large ; ' ni babi,' ye are bad ; ' ni 
mnandi,' ye are well ; ' ni mtoti,' ye are sweet ; ' ni bahle,' ye 
are j^retty ; ' ni bade,' ye are tall ; ' ni badala,' ye are old ; ' ni 
bomvu,' ye are red; 'ni bafutyane,' ye are short; ' ni nzima,' 
ye are heavy ; ' ni bancinyane,' ye are small. 

2. The agreement and construction of nouns and verbs, used as 
adjectives, do not differ essentially from their use as nouns and verbs ; 
hence they require no particular notice in this connection, further 
than what has been already given (§§ 126., 128., 129., and 130). 

§ 138. In respect to the comparison of adjectives, the differ- 
ent degrees are expressed^(<2.) by inflection, as in the forma- 
tion of the diminutive, (see § 127.) ; and 0.) by the use of 
separate additional words, as hu^ to, in comparison with ; jy<92?^, 
over, above ; l^ahidu^ greatly, very, truly ; hnpela^ totally ; 
riJiwalilula^ to surpass. Hence the rules and remarks on this 
part of adjectives will come more properly in Syntax. But a 
few examples may be given here ; thus, ngi inkulu huvje, 1 
am greater than thou, or I am great in comparison with thee ; 
literally, I am great to thee ; hikomo inkulu hahulu, or in- 
hulu itnjjela^ the cow is very large ; uinfana lo itmhulu pezu 
Jcwahanye, that boy is larger than others. '•'^ 

* For the several ways of denoting comparison in Bantu languages, 
see Appendix, Sect. III., 4. 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 73 

Sect. 4. — Xumeral Adjectives. 

§ 139. 1. JSTiimeral adjectives express the relation of number 
and quantity. They may be divided into definite numerals ; 
as, (^)?^?/^,. one ; {zi^mhiliy two, etc.; and indefinite numerals; 
as, {J))odwa, alone ; {h)onl'e, all ; {cd)a)nye^ some others. 

2. Definite numeral adjectives may be divided into the 
three classes called Cardinal^ Ordinal^ and Collective. 

§ 140. A. Cardinal numbers are those Avhich express a 
definite number, and answer to the question, — How many ? 
as, inye., one ; ziinhili, two ; zintatu^ three. 

1. The radical portions of the numerals, from one to five 
inclusive, are nye^ one ; hili or hini., two ; tatu^ three ; ne^ 
four ; hlanu^ five. These all take prefixes, like proper adjec- 
tives, according to the class and number of the noun to which 
they belong ; thus, ' umuntu omunye,' or ' omnye,' one person ; 
'umuntu munye,' the person is one \ 'inkomo enye,' one cow; 
' inkomo inye,' the cow is one ; ' abantu ababili,' two persons ; 
'abantu babili,' the persons are two; 'izinkomo ezintatu,' 
three cows; 'amatole mane,' the calves are four; 'izintizin- 
hlanu,' the rods are six. 

2. The radical portions of the cardinal numbers, from six to 
nine inclusive, are, originally, verbs, or verbs combined with 
other words ; thus, tatisitiopa, six ; kombisa or kombile^ seven ; 
shiyangcdomhili^ eight ; shiyagalohinye^ nine. These, like 
other verbs, take, as their direct nominative, either the simple 
or the relative pronoun of the noun with which they agree ; 
thus, ' abantu aba tatisitupa,' six persons, or persons who are 
six ; ^ abantu ba tatisitupa,' the persons are six, or there are 
six persons ; ' izinkomo ezi kombisa,' six cattle, or cattle which 
are six ; ' izinkomo zi kombisa,' the cattle they are six, or 
there are six cattle. 

Rem. 1. — {a.) The signification of these and other terms, 
and the whole system of numbers will be better understood, 
by remarking that the natives have little or no idea of num- 
bers in the abstract. They use the decimal system ; and 
always count by pointing out the things counted with their 
fingers, beginning generally wdth the little finger of the left 
hand, and finishing a decade with the little finger of the right 
hand. 

(Jj.) Having counted five in this way, which the native 
sometimes indicates by saying, qeda isaMclhla^ finish the hand, 
instead of saying, isildanu or zinhlanu ; he proceeds with the 
second hand, and says, zi tatisitupa {tataisitujpd)^ six, i. e.^ 
take the thumb ; zi komhisa or zi koniMle {komha), seven, i. e.^ 
point (with the fore finger) ; zi shiyangalomhili ishiya-izin- 
galo-ezinibili)^ eight, i. 6., leave two members (of the hand) ; 



74: NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

zi shiyagctlolttnye {shiya-ugalo-olunye), nine, i. e., leave one 
member (of the hand), at the same time shutting up one finger, 
as he shuts two when he counts eight. 

Rem. 2. — In j^lace of these terms, others also are sometimes 
used to represent numbers from six to nine ; as, tandatio^ six ; 
shiyangalontatii^ seven, i. ^., leave three members ; shiyamn- 
wemhili {shiya-imimoe-emi'bili) eight, i. e.^ leave two fingers ; 
cagatyisile^ nine ; also shiyanwemnye {shiya-umnwe-orayiye)^ 
nine, i. 6., leave one finger, at the same time closing one 
finger, as two are closed when eight are designated. 

§ 141. 1. The noun ishunii signifies ten, and the plural, 
mnashimni^ tens ; ikulu^ a hundred, and the plural, arnahuho, 
Imndreds ; inkulungwane^ a thousand, and izinJculungwane, 
thousands. 

2. All other numbers are expressed by combining together 
two or more of those already given ; thus, ishumi li nanye, 
ten it with one, or ishumi li va nganye^ ten it surpassed by 
one, or ten and one over, signifies eleven ; ishuini nainbili, or 
ishtcmi li nambili^ ten and two, or ishumi li va ngamhili, ten 
plus two, signifies twelve ; ishumi nantMu^ or li nantaUi^ or 
li va oigaiitatu, signifies thirteen, etc. 

So amash%imi amahili signifies two tens, i. e.^ twenty ; ama- 
shumi amatatu^ three tens, i. e., thirty, etc.; amashuini 
amahili nanye^ or a nanye, or a va nganye^ signifies two tens 
and one, i. e.^ twenty-one ; amashumi amahili namhili, or a 
nairibili^ or a va ngamhili, twenty-two, etc. 

Rem. — Rules and remarks on the g^eneral construction of cardinal 
numbers belong rather to Syntax ; yet, in addition to what has been 
already said, a few more examples may be given here ; thus, into e^iye, 
one, or another thing ; tJito inye, there is one thing, or the thing is 
one ; izinto ezimbili, two things ; izinto zimbili, there are two things, 
or the things are two : iJiiiti emibili, two trees ; imiti mibili, there are 
two trees ; izinto ezi tatisitupa, six things ; izinto zi tatisitupa, there 
are six things, or the things are six ; leta izinto zi be zine, bring four 
things, or bring things let them be four ; biza abantu ba be batatu, 
call three persons, or call persons, let them be three. (See §§ 130., 134., 
136.) 

§ 112. 1. All the digital numeral adjectives and verbs may 
become nouns by taking the incipient isi / thus, isinye, one ; 
isihili, two ; isitahi, three ; etc. 

2. A general scheme of Zulu counting, in some of its sim- 
pler terms, is given in the following — 



CARDINAL NUMBERS. 75 

Table of Cardinal Numbers. 

1 Isiiiye. 

2 Isibili. 

3 Isitatu. 

4 Isine. 

5 Isililanu. 

6 Isitatisitupa, 6»r isitnpa. 

T Isikombisa, o?' isikombile. 

8 Isishiyangalombili, o)' sliiyamnwembili. 

9 Isishivagalolunye, or sliiyanwemnye. 

10 Ishiiini. 

11 Ishumi rianye, 07^ isbmni li nanye, o?^ li va nganye. 

12 Isliunii nambili, 07' isliumi li iiambili, etc. 

13 Isliiimi nantatn, o?' li nantatu, etc. 

14 Islmmi nane, etc. 

15 Islmmi nanhlanii, etc. 

16 Islmmi na tatisitupa, or nesitatisitupa. 
IT Islmmi na kombisa or nesikombile. 

18 Isbmni nesisliiyangalombili. 

19 Islmmi nesishiyagalolmiye. 

20 Amasliumi amabili. 

21 Amashumi amabili nanye, or a nanye. 

22 Amaslmmi amabili a narabili. 

23 Amaslmmi amabili a nantatn. 

24 Amaslmmi amabili a nane. 

25 Amaslmmi amabili a nanhlann, or a nesihlann. 

26 Amaslmmi amabili a na tatisitnpa, or a nesitupa. 

27 Amaslmmi amabili a nesikombisa. 

28 Amaslmmi amabili a nesisliiyangalombili. 

29 Amashnmi amabili a nesisliiyagalolunye. 

30 Amashnmi amatatn. 
40 Amaslmmi amane. 

50 Amaslmmi amalilann. 

60 Amaslmmi a tatisitnpa. 

70 Amashumi a kombisa. 

80 Amashnmi a shiyangalombili. 

90 Amashnmi a shiyagalolnnye. 

100 Iknln. 

101 Iknln nanye, or li nanye, or li va nganye. 

102 Iknln nambili, or li nambili, etc. 

103 Iknln nantatn, etc. 

104 Iknln nane, etc. 

105 Iknln nanhlann, etc. 
200 Amaknlu amabili. 
300 Amaknln amatatn. 

500 Amaknln amahlanu, etc. 
1000 Inknlnngwane. 
2000 Izinknlungwane ezimbili. 



<b COLLECTIVE ADJECTIVES. 

The term ' izigidi ' has been used sometimes to signify mil- 
lions ; and ' amatye,' to signify billions. 

§ 143. E. Or dined numbers are those which denote a series, 
rank, or order, and answer the question, — Which one in the 
series ? 

The ordinals consist of the numeral nouns, 'ukuqala,' 'isi- 
bili,' 'isitatu,' 'ishumi,' 'amashumi amabili,' ' ikulu,' etc. 

§ 144. Ordinal numbers are put in the genitive, after the 
nouns whose rank or order in a series they are used to specify. 
Sometimes, for the greater emphasis and precision, the relative 
pronoun of the specified noun is used before the specifying 
numeral, especially where the limiting ordinal noun is of the 
decadal character ; as, ' umuntu wokuqala,' the first person ; 
^umfana wesibili,' the second boy; ' incwadi yesitatu,' the 
third book, etc.; ' umuntu o wamashumi amabili,' the twentieth 
person ; ' umuntu o wekulu,' the hundredth person ; ' igama 
leshumi nambili,' the twelfth hymn. 

§ 145. C. Collective numeral adjectives are those forms of 
the numerals which signify that several persons or things are 
taken definitely and unitedly together, in the sense of — both, 
all three, all four. 

Their very nature precludes their use in the singular, though 
they are found in iise with nouns of the seventh and eighth 
classes. 

§ 146. 1. The full form of these collective numerals is that 
of the adjective used as a predicate preceded by o and by the 
fragmentary pronoun of the noun defined ; thus, 

Abantu hdbabili, both persons ; dbantu hobatatu, all three persons ; 
imiti yomibili, both trees : imiti yomitatu, all three trees ; amatole 
omatatu, all three calves ; izibuko zozine, all four glasses ; ubuso bobu- 
bili, both faces. 

Rem.— Both the form and import would seem to denote that the col- 
lective numeral is a contracted combination of the adjective onke and 
the numeral ; thus, bonke-babili, contiSLCted=bobabili. 

2. The prefix of these collective numerals is sometimes con- 
tracted ; as, ' izinkomo zombili ' (for ' zozimbili '), both cows ; 
'zontatu' (for ' zozintatu '), all three ; 'zone' (for 'zozine'), all 
four. 

3. Sometimes instead of this specific form of the collective 
numeral, as in ho, zo, yo, etc., the numeral takes the form of a 
noun, and is connected with the noun defined, by means of a 
pronoun, relative or personal, either with or without any inter- 
vening euphonic, just as taste and euphony may require. 
This remark applies more to numbers above five than to those 
below ; thus, ' abantu ba yisikombisa,' all seven persons, or 
literally, the persons are seven; 'izinkomo ezi yishumi,' or 
' izinkomo zonke ezi yishumi ;' ' izikati zi yisihlanu,' or ' ezi 



INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES. 77 

'sihlanu,' or ' zozihlanii ;' ' abafana aba 'masliumi amabili,' or 
^ abafana bomasliiimi amabili.' 

4. When these collective numerals are used with pronouns of the 
first and second person (plural), they take the preforniative s for the 
first person, and n for the second, together with o, and the same pre- 
dicative form as adjectives belonging to personal nouns in the plural ; 
thus, tina sobabili, we both ; sobatatu, all three (of us) ; nina nobabili, 
you both ; nobatatu, all three (of you). 

Note.— For Numeral Adverbs, see Adverbs, §320., V. 

Sect. 5. — Indefinite Adjectives. 

§ 147. 1. There are a few radical words, as, onli.e^ all, tlie 
whole ; odioa or edica^ o^^ly? alone ; nye^ one, another, some 
others ; tile^ certain one, or ones ; njalo^ such ; ngaka^ so 
much ; nansiJca, what do you call it ? j»^, how many ? and 7ije, 
so many ; — which may be called indefinite adjectives, at least 
in some of their nses. 

2. Some of these, as onke and nye, are of a pronominal 
character ; Avhile tile is proj^erly a verb ; and the other words, 
as njalo, iigaka^ i^h ^^^ V^? ^^^ used more frequently as 
adverbs than as adjectives. 

§ 148. 1. a. Onke and odtoa^ or edwa^ take, as a prefix, the 
fragmentary pronoun, or preformative of the noun with which 
they agree ; thus, 

Abantu bonke, all people ; izinto zonke, all things ; izwe lonke, the 
whole country ; Una sodwa, we alone : abafana bodiva, boys only ; 
ilizwi lodwa, a word only ; mina ngediva, I only or alone. 

b. But instead of the usual fragmentary pronoun w (u=w) of the 
personal nouns, first class, singular, y is used with edwa, as more pre- 
cise and euphonic, and corresponding to the definite pronoun of that 
class ; thus, yena yediva, he alone or only. (See § 164., 2.) 

2. JV^ye is the root of the cardinal number for one, and its 
inflection here, as an indefinite numeral, meaning — some, 
others, etc., is the same as when used as the first of the cardinal 
series, its import depending upon its connection and position ; 
thus, 

Abanye ba tanda, abanye ba zonda, some love, some (or others) hate ; 
izinkomo ezinye zi fikile, ezinye a zi ka fiki, some cows have come, and 
some have not yet come. 

3. Tile is from the verb uku ti, to say, to wit, to specify, 
and follows the inflection of similar verbs in its relation to 
nouns and pronouns. It is often used in the sense of — a cer- 
tain one, any one, some one, referring especially to some 
person or thing before specifled ; as, 

Umuntu o tile, a certain person, or the said person ; abantu aba tile, 
certain persons. The verbal noun is sometimes used in the genitivo- 
locative form : thus, wena wa sekutini, thou of a certain (place or 
character), that is, thou shade of my ancestors, thou tutelar ghost. 



78 PRONOUNS. 

4. Njalo^ ngaka^ pi, and nje^ are properly adverbs, though 
they are often used as ]3redicates of pronouns, in which case 
they have more the force of indefinite adjectives; thus, Jcu 
njalo, it is so, or it is such ; ha njalo Iciba ^hantu, such are this 
people ; amandhla a ngaka, such power ; zi ngcika, they are 
so great ; ha jpi na f they are how many ? also ha ngapi na f 
literally, where are they ? primarily, as to place, and then, by 
implication, as to number ; ha nje, they are so many. 

5. Nansika is a word of a general indefinite character, used 
in the sense of — What do you call it ? etc., when one has for- 
gotten a thing, or a person, and is trying to recollect the 
name ; thus, 

I—i — i — nansika, it— it— it is such— or what do you call it ? ha — ha — 
ha nansika— ha ngahantu ha ka 'Fodo, they— they— who are they? 
strange I have forgotten— oh, they are the people of Fodo. 



CHAPTER IV. 

PRONOUNS. 

§ 149. There is a class of relational words in the Isizulu, 
which may be used either instead of specific names of objects 
alluded to, in order to prevent a needless repetition ; or they 
may be used in addition to those names, in order to secure 
precision of reference, > or point out the relations of personality. 
Hence these words are called jy/^onouns {prononiina, for nouns). 
They may be used either as suhstitutes or as complements. 

1. Some of them are suhstitutes, inasmuch as they may stand not 
only for nouns, but also for adjectives, for a sentence, or a part of a 
sentence, or for a series of propositions. 

2. They often serve also, at lea^t some of them, in a complemental 
character, inasmuch as, even when the noun is used, they are required 
along with it, or in addition to it, to give limits and connection to its 
meaning, and prevent ambiguity, by designating its person and its rel- 
ative position in regard to the discourse in which it appears, 

§ 150. All tliese pronouns — these relational substitutes and 
complements — present, in themselves, an index to the noun 
for which they stand, or to which they refer, by exhibiting in 
their very form a marked resemblance to the nominal incip- 
ient'^ — the more essential, fixed portion of the pronoun being 
often a mere image of the noun's incipient ; thus, 

* According to Dr. Bleek, the chief characteristic of the Bantu family 
is, that the pronouns are originally borrowed from the prefixes of the 
nouns, whilst in the Hottentot, Egyptian. Semitic and Aryan, or Indo- 
European, the pronouns are borrowed originally from the suffixes of 
the nouns. Hence, the former are called prefix pronominal languages, 
and the latter suffix pronominal languages, and both together, pronom- 
inal languages. Of the Bantu family, the Kafir and Zulu probably 
present in general the fullest forms and most original features with 
regard to structure, and the greatest melodiousness in sounds. — Comp. 
Gram., pp. 2, 5, 208. 



CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS. 79 

The personal pronouns si, sona, the demonstratives esi or lesi, and 
the relative esi, present a marked likeness to the incipient isi of the 
fourtli class, singular ; as, isihuko, isifo, isikati, etc.; and the pronouns 
ha, bona, aha or laha, and aha, all bear the image of the incipient aha 
for nouns of the first class plural number; as, ahafana, etc. 

Rem. — In some instances, however, the image is rendered obscure, at 
least to the superficial eye, on account of contractions and other 
changes required by euphony ; thus, the relation of the pronouns li, 
lona, ell, Mi, etc., to the noun igama, is not so outwardly manifest as 
it would be, should the full form of the incipient, ^7^, be used in that 
noun, making iligama ; and the relation of yi and yona, to inkosi, and 
of icu and wona, to umfula, is obscured in a measure by the addition 
of the semi-vowels y and w to i and ii, or by the change of these vowels 
{i and u) into their cognates y and iv. (See §§ 16., IV., 35., 2., 3.) 

Sect. 1. — Classification of Pronouns. 

§ 151. Pronouns rnaj be classified in several different ways, 
one of which is as follows : — 

I. Suhstantive-^voTiOViYi^, or those which can stand for nouns 
as substitutes, but cannot combine with them as attributes ; as, 

Ngi, mina, I ; ni, nina, ye ; ha, hona, they ; li, lona, si, sona, it, etc. 

II. Adjective pronouns, or tliose which can combine with 
nouns attributively, like adjectives, to qualify or limit them ; 
as, 

Leli Hizwe, this country ; laha ^hantu, these persons ; inkomo yami, 
my cow ; izinto zake, his things ; ahantu honke, all people, or every 
body. 

III. Aclve7'-bial pronouns, or those which can combine with 
verbs to modify their meaning ; as, 

Kona, then, here, etc.; pi ov ngapi, where? ngani, why? by what? 
ini, what ? why ? 

§ 152. Pronouns may be conveniently divided also into the 
four classes called, Personal^ Relative^ Deriionstrative^ and 
Interrogative. 



Sect. 2. — A. Personal Pronouns. 

§ 153. 1. As the persons or things mentioned in the dis- 
course are looked upon as playing different parts or characters, 
according to their position as respects the act of speahing^ that 
class of words which is especially intended to mark such posi- 
tion, has been denominated j^^r^on^^ {persona^ a character, part). 

S. Hence personal pronouns are not mere substitutes for the names 
of the persons or things for which they stand. They involve person- 
ality also. They serve to express the relation of an object to the 



* 



80 PEESOKAL PEONOUNS. 

speaker, showing whether the object is the speaker himself, the first 
person ; or the person or thing addressed, the second person ; or the 
person or thing spoken of, the third person. 

3. Personal pronouns have, therefore, three persons ; as, ngi or mina, 
I ; u or ivena, thou : u or yena, li or lona, ku or kona, ha or hona, etc., 
he, she, it, they, etc. 

§ 154. Gender^ as a distinction of sex, does not pertain to 
the pronoan, either in form or signification ; though the diifer- 
ence between personal and impersonal is marked, to some 
extent, in pronouns as in nonns — those pronouns which refer 
to nouns of the first class being, as the nouns are, generally, 
personal ; while those which refer to other classes, are, like the 
nouns, of course, for the most part, impersonal. 

§ 165. 1. Personal pronouns have two mtmbers, singular 
and plural, and different forms to express the same ; as, 

Ngi and mina, I or me ; si and Una, we or us : u and wena, thou or 
thee ; ni and nina, ye or you. 

2. In the third person, the form of the pronoun follows the 
form of the nominal incipient in respect to both number and 
class; thus. 

The pronouns I, li, lo, lona, alo, etc., all exhibit a likeness to the 
incipient Hi, as in ilizwi ; the pronouns s, si, so, sona, etc., all resemble 
the incipient isi, as in isifo; and the pronouns h, ha, ho, bona, etc., all 
resemble the incipient aha, as in ahantu. 

§ 156. 1. Zulu pronouns can hardly be said to have any 
variety of form or inflection to distinguish cases^ least of all, to 
make any general distinction in form between the nominative 
and the accusative. Almost the only instance of a variation, 
to mark the two, is in the third person^ first class, singular, 
simple form, where it (sometimes a or e) is used as nominative, 
and m or mii as accusative. 

2. But, generally, the same form of the pronoun may be 
either the subject or the object (nominative or accusative) of 
the verb, according to its locality and connection ; thus, 

Ngi ha tanda, I them love ; ha ngi tanda, they me love ; hona ha si 
tanda, they, they us love ; Una si ha tanda, we, we them love. 
(§162., Rem.) 

Rem. 1. — The use of ica instead of a, in the accusative, third person, 
second class, plural ; of tvu instead of u, sixth class, singular ; and of 
yi instead of i, third class, singular, and sixth class, plural ; and of ku 
or wu instead of u, second person, singular, is merely a euphonic varia- 
tion, which occurs as well in the nominative as accusative, where 
similar (euphonic) circumstances require. 

Rem. 2. — Some forms, as mina, Una, wena, etc., maybe not only 
either nominative or accusative, but they may be put also in the geni- 
tive, and be governed by ka, like the names of persons ; as, inkomo ka 
mina, a cow of me, ^. e., my own cow. 



PEEFORMATIVE PRONOUN. 81 

§ 157. 1. If the cases of pronouns in Isizulii be determined 
according to the sense, and designated by a very common class 
of terms, there are three — the Nominative^ Genitive, and 
Accusative. 

2. And if these be subdivided and designated according to 
their/<9V'?»^, it will give what may be called : — 

a. The Simple nominative and accusative ; as, 

iV^gi, I, me ; si, we, us ; ni, ye, you ; i {yi), li, ku, etc., it ; ba, tliey, 
them ; zi, they, them, etc. 

h. The Conjunctive accusative and genitive; as, 

Kumi, to me ; nami, with me ; ngami, by or through or on account 
of me; yami, lami, bami, zami, etc., of me; kuti, or kwiti, to us; 
nati, with us ; ngati, by or through us ; yetu, zetu, etc., of us ; kubo, to 
them ; nabo, with them ; yabo, labo, zabo, etc., of them. 

c. The Dejinitive nominative, accusative, and genitive ; as, 

Mina, I or me, or I myself, me myself ; ka mina, of myself ; Una, 
we, us, or we ourselves, us ourselves ; ka tiiia, of ourselves ; bona, 
they, them, etc.; ka bona, of them or of themselves, etc. 

§ 158. 1. But pronouns may be divided and named, perhaps 
more conveniently and properly, according to their different 
forms and offices ; and these divisions be regarded rather as 
different Mnds than as cases of pronouns. 

2. There are, then, six kinds of personal pronouns, each 
kind having its own leading variety of form, and each form 
bearing more or less of likeness to the incipient of the noun 
for which it stands or to which it refers. 

3. These different kinds may be denominated, according to 
their office, the P reformative, the Simple, the Conjunctive, 
the Definitive, the Possessive, and the Reflective. 

§ 159. A. The PREFORMATivE pronoun is of a fragmentary 
genitival character. 

{a.) It consists, in most cases, of the consonant, or else of a 
semi-consonant cognate to the vowel, of the simple pronoun ; 
or, (what amounts to the same,) primarily, and in the third 
person, it consists of the leading consonant or semi-vowel, or 
both together, of the nominal incipient to which it refers ; as, 

Ng from ngi ; n from ni ; w from u ; y from i or im, in, or imi ; I 
from li or Hi ; b from ba or aba ; z from zi or izi, izim, or izin. (See 
§ 103.) 

{h.) But, for the plural of the second class a7na, the frag- 
mentary preformative is a, which coalesces or is absorbed in 
the initial vowel of the noun with which it is used ; and for 
the singular of the fifth class, and for the eighth class, the 
fragmentary preformative consists of a consonant and a semi- 
vowel, Iw and Jew. 
6 



I 



82 SIMPLE PHONOUN. 

Eem. 1. — The w in Iw and kw is sometimes heard but faintly, if not 
quite elided, especially before o. The w is always dropped in the frag- 
mentary preformative of the seventh class, because of its incompat- 
ibility with h. (See § 25. , Rem. ) 

Rem. 2. — What is here denominated a preformative, or fragmentary 
genitive pronoun, has been called, by some, the "euphonic letter." 
But to this term there are objections. (See §35., Rem. 2.) 

§ 160. 1. Tlie office of the preformative pronoun is to serve 
with the genitive particle <z, in forming the genitive case of 
nouns and prononns, and to point out the relation of source, 
origin, property, or possession, between the limiting noun and 
the noun limited — between the possessor and the thing pos- 
sessed ; thus, 

Izinkomo zenkosi, cattle of the chief ; abantu benkosi, people of the 
chief : abantu bami, people of me, my people ; abantu ba sEinona, 
people of or from Umona ; isifo somfana, sickness of the boy ; ilizwe 
lomlungu, country of the white man. Here the preformative z, in zen- 
kosi, shows the relation of this word to izinkomo, from whose incip- 
ient, izin, the preformative is obtained ; so the 6, in benkosi, points to 
abantu, in whose incipient the b is found ; so s, in somfana, refers to 
isifo, and I, in lomlungu, to ilizwe, etc. 

2. The preformative pronoun is prefixed also to the j^ro- 
nominal adjectives onke^ odwa, or edwa^ to show their relation 
to the noun or jDronoun with which thej agree ; thus, 

Abantu bonke, all people ; izwe or ilizive lonke, the whole country ; 
ni nodwa, ye only ; si sodiva, we only. (See §148.) 

§ 161. B. The SIMPLE jDronoun"^ is of a eompIeme7ital, and 
also of a verbal character, being used in addition to the noun, 
even when that is expressed, and constituting, always, the 
direct subject, and often the direct object, (nominative or 
accusative,) of the verb ; thus, 

* In Yao the simple nominative forms of the first and second persons 
are ni I, u thou ; plural, tu, we, 7n or mu, ye. For the first class, sin- 
gular, we find a he or she, and iva they. For the accusative, singular, 
we find n, me, u thee ; plural, tu us, m you. For the first class, singu- 
lar, m him or her, a or wa them. For the other classes the nominative 
and accusative seem to be the same ; the characteristics, in the singu- 
lar, u, ji, li, etc. ; plural, ji, si, ga. etc. The full forms of the first and 
second persons, when not in combination, are U7ie I. uwe we ; ugwe 
thou, umwe you. Reduplicating the last syllable adds the idea of 
self, as unene, I myself ; uwewe, we ourselves. 

Passing to the extreme west coast, in the Kimbundu, we find the 
simple nominative forms of the pronouns for the first and second per- 
son, and for the third person of the first class, are ngi I, u thou, and 
u or a he, she or it ; plural, tu we, nu ye, and a they. For the other 
classes the verb takes the concord prefix for its subject and also for its 
direct or simple object ; as u, ki, ri, lu. tu, etc., singular, and i, ma, ji, 
etc., plural; as {kima. thing,) ki banga, it makes; {ima, things,) 
i banga, they make ; (rilonga, plate,) ri banga, it makes ; {malonga, 
plates,) ma banga, they make, etc. Ngi ku zola, I love thee ; u ngi 
zola, thou lovest mp ; tu nu zola, you love us ; ngi ki zola {kinda), I 
love it (the basket) ; ki ngi zola, it loves me. 



CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUN. 83 

Ahantu ha ya haviba, people they do go ; u fikile umfana, he has 
arrived the boy ; abantu ba si tanda isinkwa, the people they it love 
bread ; ba zi bonile izinkomo, they them have seen the cattle. 

§ 162. 1. The simple pronoun has also an elementary or 
radical character, as its name implies. This character is par- 
ticularly manifest in the simple pronouns of the first and 
second persons ; as, 7igi, si^ u^ ni. In the third person also, it 
comprises the principal, the more essential element of the 
incipient of the noun for which it stands ; thus. 

From the incipient liinii, um, or u, of the first class, singular, comes 
the simple pronouns 2i, and m or mu ; from the plural incipient aba or 
o, comes the simple pronoun ba ; from Hi, the pronoun li; from im or 
m, the pronoun i or yi ; from isi, si, etc. 

2. This pronoun may be considered as elementary also from 
the extent to whicli it is found to enter into the formation of 
other pronouns, not only personal, but also the relative and 
demonstrative classes ; thus, 

The relative corresponding to the simple ii, is o (the relative particle 
a-u), and the demonstrative is lo or loivo ; corresponding to ba is the 
relative aba (a-ba), and the demonstrative laba or aba ; corresponding 
to li is the relative eli (a-i-li), and the demonstrative leli or eli ; etc. 

Eem. — The same form of the simple pronoun is both nominative and 
accusative, with some exceptions, mostly euphonic ; thus, ngi, si, ni, 
ba, li, zi, lu, bu, and kii, are the same in both cases, except sometimes 
in the accusative they precede a vowel verb, which causes i or a to be 
elided, and changes u into w. The second person singular u is gen- 
erally hardened by k, =ku, in the accusative ; so a, third person plural, 
second class, generally takes its cognate consonant w, =wa, in the 
accusative ; and i, third class, singular, and sixth class, plural, takes 
its cognate y, =yi, in the accusative. In the first class, singular, u 
{a or e) is used as nominative, and m or mu as accusative. 

The same changes — eliding i or a in si, ni, ba, etc., or hardening u 
by k, and sometimes by w, and ibj y, = yi, a by iv, =wa, etc., are made 
in these pronouns when used as nominatives, whenever the same cir- 
cumstances occur to require them. 

The principles, on which these changes are made, have been explained 
already, chiefly in § 16. ; and examples of them occur in every part of 
the verb, particularly in the imperative mode, in the negative forms, 
and in vowel verbs. 

§ 163. C. The coxjtJNCTivE pronoun, as mi, ti, ho, lo, etc., is 
always joined with some other word, being used : — 

{a.) As a suffix to a preposition or a conjunction; thus, 
Tcumi, to me ; nami^ with me, or and me ; huti or Ttwiti, to 
us ; nati, with or and us ; so, huho, nabo, njengaho, njengalo. 

(h.) As a suffix to the genitive particle a, and the preforma- 
tive of the governing noun ; thus, wanii {limfana lomni, boy 
of me) ; ha^ini {abantu bami, people of me) ; yami {inJcomo 
yami, cow of me) ; so wabo, babo, yabo, wato, balo, etc. This 
makes the possessive pronoun, which see, § 166. 



84 DEFINITIVE PRONOUN. 

(c.) The conjunctive pronoun is compounded with the rela- 
tive pronoun, and a preposition, to both of which it is suffixed 
in forming the reliective pronoun ; thus, 7igokwami, ngoJcwabo, 
etc. (See Reliective Pronouns, g 167.) 

(d.) It is also combined, as a prefix, with 7ia, in forming the 
definitive pronoun ; thus, Tnina, Una, ho7ia, etc. (See Defini- 
tive Pronouns, § 165.) 

{e.) Yo and ho are often suffixed to verbs in accessory 
clauses ; thus, itmfmia o lungileyo, a good boy ; into e ngi 
tandileho, a thing which 1 love. 

Rem. — As the object of a preposition, the conjunctive pronoun has 
an accusative character ; as entering into the formation of the posses- 
sive, reflective, and definitive pronouns, it has ?i compositive character ; 
as never used by itself, it is inseparable. It is often used in addition to 
tlie noun to wliich it refers ; as, kuho ahantu, to them the people, 
which gives it a complemental character. 

§ 164. 1. The conjunctive pronoun is formed from the sim- 
ple or elementary, in most cases, by a change in one of the 
letters in the latter, generally the final vowel a, i, or 76, into o. 
This rule holds in all the classes and numbers of the third 
person, save the singular of the first class. Thus, from the 
simple ha comes the conjunctive ho ; from li comes lo / from 
si, so ; from a or 'wa, wo ; from i or yi, yo ; from zi, zo ; etc. 

2. But in the first class, third person, singular, from n {a or 
e) comes ye, the sharp, direct, positive form u being softened 
to a or e in most derivative forms and accessory clauses, and 
yet preserved, and ease of enunciation promoted by the use of 
some euphonic, as Ic, making ha ; or ng, making nga ; or y, as 
in the form before us, making ye. In the first person singu- 
lar, 7ig, of the simple ngi, changes to m, making the conjunc- 
tive nii / in the plural, s changes to t, making ti (or iti) ; in 
the second person singular, it changes to ice (a compound of 
u-e=we). In the plural, both the simple and the conjunctive 
are the same, ni, except where the conjunctive takes, ae it 
does sometimes, the fuller form ini, instead of the simple 7ii. 

§ 165. D, The definitive pronoun, which, as just remarked 
(§ 163., d.), is made up of the conjunctive pronoun and the 
suiformative particle na, as mina, Una, hona, etc., is used 
sometimes for emphasis or to give an accurate and forcible 
specification of a person or thing. It has also a euphonic and 
sometimes an idiomatic use. It has sometimes the force of a 
noun, and may be used like nouns in the nominative, geritive, 
and accusative cases ; and hence may be called the sidystanUval 
pronoun. 



POSSESSIVE PEONOUNS. 85 

The rules for the use of this pronoun, with suitable illustrations, 
belong rather to Syntax ; though a few examples may be introduced in 
this connection ; thus, ngi y' azi mina. I know, I (though you and 
others do not) ; wena u tini na ? what sayest thou, thou (and not 
another)? si ya ba tanda bona, we love them, or we do them love, 
them ; yebo tina, yes we (are all of the same opinion) ; izinkomo zi ka 
mina, my own cattle. 

§ 166. ^. The POSSESSIVE pronouns'^ consist, for tlie most 
part, of the conjunctive form, to whicli is prefixed the genitive 
particle a, and the fragmentary preformative of the nonn pos- 
sessed or limited ; thus, cibantu hand {l)~a-mi)^ the people of 
me, or mj people ; ilizwi Idbo ih-a-bo), their word ; isihaya 
sazo {s-cc-so), theii- fold. 

Rem. 1. — The possessive forms etu and enu, of the first and second 
person, plural, are irregular, being derived posyibly from obsolete 
forms, as itu, inu, but more probably from iti and ini, whose initial 
vowel, I, coalesces with the genitive particle a, and makes e, and 
whose final vowel, i, has been changed to u, for the sake of greater 
fullness and ease of utterance, the two changes giving etu and enu. 

Rem. 2. — The possessive forms ako of the second person, singular, 
and ake of the third person, singular, first class, are also irregular, 
being formed possibly from obsolete roots, but more probably from the 
simple pronoun u, hardened by k, and changed, in the one case to o, 
and in the other to e, to relieve the sharpness of the vowel u, to make 
a clear distinction between these two persons, and at the same time 
secure greater precision, fullness, and variety. (See § 164., 2.) 

§ 167. J^. The REFLECTIVE pronoun is of a compound, rela- 
tive, personal, accusative character, consisting of the preposi- 
tion 7iga, the general indefinite relative oku, and the possessive 
personal pronoun a?n{, ctko^ emc, etu^ ake^ or ctbo^ etc., accord- 
ing to the number, person, and class, of the noun referred to ; 
thus, 

Ngokwami {nga-oku-ami). in respect to me, or mysplf , or in respect 
to that which pertains to me ; ngokwetu, in respect to us ; ngokivake, 
in respect to him, etc. 

§ 168. The different forms of the preformative, simple, con- 
junctive, definitive, possessive, and reflective pronouns, in their 
several persons, classes, and numbers, are compendiously given 
on the following page : — 

§ 169. Sometimes two different kinds or forms of personal 
pronouns are compounded : — 

a. For the greater emphasis ; thus, uwena, thou thyself ; 
uyena, he himself ; itina, we ourselves ; inina^ ye yourselves. 

*In Yao the possessive pronoun of the first and second person, and 
of the third person first class, are angu my. ako thy. akwe his, her, its ; 
etu our, enu your, and ao their. To these are prefixed the preforma- 
tive or characteristic of the noun limited : as, mtela wako, thy tree. 



86 



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PERSONAL PEONOUNS. 



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Pi 


c3 


c3 


Ct3 






H 


a-S 


^■fl 




5S 


ss 


5g 


5 





^' 










.^ 




CD 


















so 



6 






-I 




ri4 


S^ 


?.§ 


ss 


5S 


1?; 


5 





5? 


£ 































0. 












t3 


















r-.;. 








^ 




a 



























^ 




a"^ 
















^* 


1 

'*^, 


1-5 
So 


pq 












kj 

















> 




ri4 











'S*N 


£-s 






S 
^ 




s 


OS 


H 






























1 


be 


^ ti 




^^ 


^ ce 


;>>si 


M N 


i. 


^ t^ 


^ 


^ 
^ 


s 






^ 


Vi 


^ 




fH 


;h 


iH 


$H 


^ 


;-i 


ft 


ft 








PQ 
{2; 


c3 


S 




c3 


S 


03 


^ 


^ 


cS 












13 Ic 


3 'rt 




9-^ 


sli 


9li 


3^^ 


'313 


91« 


33 


02 








•53 ft 


be^ 




bo^ 

02 ft 


M ft 


be^ 
•^ ft 


"S ft 


■^ ft 


'cc ft 












^-^- — 




























!z; 


:z; 












fl 
















M 


C 


. 


f3 








'n 


















Q 


i 


a 
^.0 










3 


P 












CO 


J5 
05 


1^ 






d~a 


il 


'5 |n 


li 


!1 


P 

^ 










,^ 




•ssvio 


T-H 


CQ 


CO 


^ 


1.0 


CD 


i> 


00 
















^ 














^ 





'NOsaacE aaiHX 



RELATIVE PEONOUNS. 87 

1). Tliey may be used together, but not united, as subject 
and predicate ; thus, it yena, he is he, or it is he, or he is the 
one ; i tina^ it is we ; u wena^ it is thou ; so, Icii nguye^ it is 
he ; ku nguwe; i nguye; hu yiyo. 

c. But a more common compound is that of the simple with 
the conjunctive form to express the efficient agent after passive 
verbs, sometimes with, and sometimes without, a euphonic ; thus, 

Ku biziwe iyo inJcosi, it is demanded by him the chief ; kwenziwe 
ngimi, or uye or nguye, it was done by me, or by him. The definitive 
form is sometimes used in this way ; thus, kwenziive mina, imina, or 
umina, yena, or uyena, or nguyena ; it was done by myself, or by him- 
self, etc. 

d. The simple and conjunctive forms of the pronouns are 
sometimes used after the negative formula a si, (negative a, pro- 
noun ^, with euphonic s to prevent hiatus, see § 35., 5.) ; thus, 

A si ngimi, it is not I ; a si nguye, it is not he ; a si yiyo, it is not it. 
Or the conjunctive form may be used without the simple ; as, a si mi ; 
a si ye ; a si yo. 

Sect. 3. — B. Relative Pronouns. 

§ 170. The relative pronoun, for nouns of the third person, 
consists of the relative particle a combined with the initial 
vowel of the nominal incipient, together with the personal 
pronoun, (generally the simple, but sometimes the conjunctive 
or the definitive,) of the noun referred to ; thus. 

The ordinary relative for the first class, singular, is o {a-ti) ; plural, 
aba {a-a-ba) : second class, singular, eli (a-i-li) ; plural, a (a-a) : for 
the third class, singular, e {a-i) ; plural, ezi {a~i-zi) : fourth class, sing- 
ular, esi (a-i-si) ; plural, ezi. etc. So for the fifth class, singular, olu, 
plural ezi; sixth class, singular, o, plural e ; seventh class, obu ; eighth 
class, oku. 

§ 171. 1. The relative pronouns used for the first and second 
persons are sometimes the same as those used for the third 
person first class — 

O (a-u) being used for the first and second persons singular; thus, ku 
ngimi o tanda, it is I who love : kit nguwe o tanda, it is thou who 
lovest ; and aba (a-a-ba) being used for the plural; thus, Una, or tin' aba 
tanda, we who love ; nina, or nin' aba tanda, ye who love. 

2. But the form of the relative pronoun often used for 
these first and second persons, consists of the personal pro- 
nouns, together with the relative o (a-io) for the first and 
second person singular ; and e (a-i) for the first and second 
person plural ; thus, 

3Iina ongi tanda, I who love ; wena o tayida, thou who lovest ; tina, 
or tin'' esi ta7ida ; nina, or nin' eni tanda. 

§ 172. 1. When the relative pronoun is nominative, the rela- 
tive and the personal parts are generally joined in one word, 
as in the two foregoing paragraphs. 

2. But where the relative is the accusative — the object of a 
verh — the personal part is separated from the relative — the 
relative being put before the direct nominative of the verb, 



88 EELATIVE PEONOUNS. 

or made to coalesce with it ; and the personal part being pnt, 
if of the simple form, immediately before the principaWerb, 
but if of the definitive form, immediately after the verb ; thus, 

Umuntu o ngi m hiza ; the person whom I call— literally, whom I 
him call; umuntu o ngi hiza yena, the person whora I call him; umuntu 
o ngi ya ku m hiza, the person whom I shall him call; umuntu o ngi ya 
ku hiza yena, the person whom I shall call him ; ahantu o ha hiza, 
■ (o = a(-a)-u,)— the people whom thou them callest ; ahantu o ya ku ha 
hiza, or o ya ku hiza hona. the people whom thou wilt them call, or 
whom thou wilt call them ; ilizwe e ha li tanda ahantu, the country 
which they it love the people, i. e., the country which the people love ; 
ilizwe e ha tanda lona, the country which they love it. 

•3. When the relative is the ohject of a jprejposition^ the per- 
sonal part is of the conjunctive, or sometimes of the definitive 
form, and put, in both instances, after the principal verb; thus, 

Umimtu o ngi zwile kuyn, or ku yena, the person from whom I have 
heard, or as to whom I have heard from him ; igama e si bizwa ngalo 
or nga lona, the name as to which we are called by it. 

§ 173. 1. Sometimes either the relative or the personal por- 
tion of the pronoun is omitted, in which case the verb often 
terminates in the j)ronominal euphonic sufiix yo or ho, (see 
§ 163., e.) ; thus, 

Umuntu ha m iandayo, the person whom they love ; ahantu si ha 
bonileyo, the peoi)le whom we have seen; le ^nto e ni letileyo, that thing 
which ye have brought. 

2. Sometimes when the relative and its clause is of a very 
parenthetic incidental character, the more usual direct or posi- 
tive form of the relative part of the pronoun, as a and 6>, are 
changed to e, the verb taking the suffix yo or Ico ; and some- 
times this oblique from <?, (instead of a or 6>,) with the above 
suffix yo or I'o, is apparently used merely for the greater 
euphony and variety ; thus, ariiahashi e (for a) ngi wet suli- 
leyo / iihudhla e (for 0) si nga Jcio jpekanga / aba f ana e si ha 
ftondisayo / yena e (or o) si m honileyo. 

§ 174. 1. The relative pronoun of the possessive character is 

placed occasionally before tlie noun limited or possessed, the 

initial vowel of the noun being elided ; thus, 

Ahantu aha 'nkosi, the people whose chief; inkosi e 'hantu. the chief 
whose people ; izinkomo ezi lizive, the cattle whose country. Some- 
times the greater part of the nominal incipient is elided; thus, umuntu 
'nkomo, the person whose cattle (plural). 

2. Sometimes the personal pronoun, possessive, referring to 
the noun possessed or limited, is also used in addition to the 
relative ; thus, 

Umuntu o 'nkomo zake, the person whose cattle of him : ilizwe eli 
'bantu halo, the country whose jDeople of it; ilanga eli 'kukanya kwalo, 
the sun whose light of it. 

3. The relative pronoun is very often omitted in examples 

like the foregoing, and the personal only used ; thus, 

Ahantu inkosi yaho, the people whose king,— literally, the people the 
king of them; umuntu izinkomo zake, the person the cattle of him, /. e., 
whose cattle; umuntu ibizo lake, the person his name, /. e., whose name. 



EELATIYE PRONOUNS. 



89 



§ 175. The different forms of the relative pronouns for the 
different persons, nnmbers, and classes ; and the different vari- 
eties of form, as nominative and accusative ; with the simple, 
definitive, or conjunctive of the personal pronouns ; and the 
possessive with nouns, may all be exhibited, in a compendious 
manner, in the following — 







o 


o^ 




d 
















d 


fl 




> 


i 'mlom 
mazwi 
'mazwi 


zwi 

'zingub 
'zingu 




^1 


C d 

d^ 
42 -^i 




d d 


II 


^ d 

II 


d 

1 


13 
O 

d 




bc:^ d 


;:^.^ c3 




rt c6 




^S 


CO .pj 


" - 


^•s 


J3 ^N 


ri 


^ 


4^ 




o 


C cdJ=> 


- s^ 




- ^ 


•'~] 




N 


'cc 'sj 




,o 


^ 






cu 


O O d 


O 0^ o3 




O C3 


0) 


d 


CD CD 


OJ cy 


o o 


o a; 


o 


o 






"s-sJ 


s-si 






O 


o 


5 ^ 


O O 


^g 


2 o 


i 


o 






1^ - -. 


-^ V. V 




^ V. 


^ 


^ 


V. V. 


^ ^ 


V - 


-. ^ 


^ 


^ 


ri::'5 






o - - 
























•|a 








wena 

nina 

bona 






d 

c 


o 


^ d 


o o 

CO N 


d ce 




d 


d 


■e 

«4-l 0) 




t 


fe.^ : 


::;::: 






z 


- 




:: :: 


:: - 








d J 




H 


























^ 




O 
O 


























O) f-< 
























* 




;-. oi 


8 
§ 


1 1 


1 1 




1 1 


1 


d 
1 


1 1 


•7/53 
1 1 


1 1 


J3 
1 1 


|3 
1 


:3 
1 








1 1 

CD 


1 1 




1 1 


1 


1 

0) 


1 1 


i 1 


1 1 


1 1 

CD 


1 


1 

® 


-(J 
^ o 


-§ 




1^ 


5- 




^ ^ 




^ 






5~ 


5- 


?* 


?> 


a'^ 


-£ 




O 


o 




o o 




o 






O 


O 


o 


o 


'^ 




5- 


5^ 






















-+S . 


^ 




o 

*- O i» d 


O 
O ® Q 




O d 


o 


d 


0) <D 


© 


O <D 


O <Xi 


o 


o 




'^ 




























^a 


.^ 


a 




























o 


> 


'Sb 


























g 


i 

Q 








J 






*N 


'S*N 


^•s 












o <D a 


O 0) cc 




o d 


% 


d 


0^ 0) 


O CD 


O OJ 


o o 


o 


o 






;2; 


^r~ 


-^r— 




























'fl 


;h 




;h 


IH 




u 


;-( 


;_, 


r-( 










P^ 


s 


ce 




d 


d 




^^ 


d 


d 


d 


ft 


ft 








1— t r-H 


























fn 


3 '^ 


^ d 




5 d 


s 


d 


"B^d 


3 d 


3d 


313 


•rs 


T? 






n 


fac f^ 


bo !3 




&£Ph 


b£ 


JH 


bJOb 


6>£ b 


be !i 


&c f-i 


fl 


fl 










1 


cc 







S 
^ 






'm a 


s-5 


d 
m 


d 

cc 










1 

02 




ai 

? d 


•- 


d 

s 

d 


C 

"Is 

.§:i 


"^ *S 




ii 


13 














— — ,-^w- 


— - 


r-~— ' 


— ..-v-.w^ 


^— ,— w 


^—-Y-*-' 
















•ssv^o 


-^ 


o^ 


CO 


-^ 


IC 


<r> 


t- 


oo 





•Kosaad aaiHx 



90 DEMONSTEATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Rem. — The dash ( — ), between the accusative forms of the relative, 
represents the place of the personal pronoun nominative, and of the 
auxiliary to the verb ; thus, ngi ya fa mina o ba ngi hulala, I am dying 
I whom they me kill ; — where ba takes the place of the blank in the 
table, between o and ngi, first person singular. So again, lo ^muntu e 
SI YA KU 711 hiza u godukile, that person whom we shall call has gone 
home ; — where si ya ku take the place of the blank in the table, be- 
tween e and m, third person, first class, singular. 

Sect. 4. — C. Demonstrative Pronouns. 

§ 1Y6. The demonstrative pronoun, like the personal and 
relative, varies in form according to the person, class, and 
number of the noun to which it relates. 

1. The simple form of the demonstrative, and that which 
relates to the nearest person or thing, is composed of the rela- 
tive, and of tlie pref ormative I ; thus, 

ho umfana, or lo ^mfana, this boy ; laba abantu, or laba ^bantu, these 
people : le inkomo, or le 'nkomo, this cow ; leli 'lizwe, this country. 

2. The dissyllabic relative sometimes neglects to take the 
preformative I, in its use as a demonstrative ; thus, 

Eliizwe, this country; olu luti, this rod ; esi 'sifo, this sickness. 

§ 177. The demonstrative pointing to the person or thing 
more distant is formed from the simple demonstrative, which 
points to the nearest person or thing, by changing the final 
vowel, (X, i, or u, of the latter, into o, in all dissyllabic forms ; 
thus, lelo, that ; laho, those ; eso or leso, that ; oko or loJco^ 
that ; etc. But to monosyllabic forms, there is an addition of 
a syllable ; as, wa or wo, to lo, making loiva or loivo, that, for 
the first and sixth classes singular ; and to la, making lawa or 
lawo, for the second class plural ; and yo to le, making leyo, 
for the third class singular ; thus, 

Lowa or lowo ^muntu, that person ; lawa or lawo ^mazwe, those 
countries ; leyo 'nkomo, that cow. 

§ 178. When the demonstrative pronoun refers to a person 
or thing very far or most distant, it suflixes the syllable ya, 
generally to the simple form which refers to the nearer person 
or thing, but sometimes to the other form which signifies the 
more remote ; and this suffix ya takes the accent, the strength 
and prolongation of which are made to correspond to the great- 
ness of the distance ; thus, 

Lowaya umuntu, that person yonder, or away in the distance ; leliya 
izwe, that distant country ; labaya abantu, those people yonder. 

Rem. 1.— r-The initial vowel of the noun is not often elided with this 
kind of demonstrative. 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 



91 



Rem. 2. — The I, characteristic of the demonstrative pronoun, is al- 
ways used when that pronoun and its noun are put in the genitive to 
limit another noun, except in some cases when the demonstrative fol- 
lows the noun which it qualifies. The use of Z, — the full form of the 
demonstrative — after the genitive particle a, prevents a hiatus, and 
gives force and prominence to that particle and its accompanying frag- 
mentary preformative ; thus, inkomo ya lo 'muntu, the cow of this 
man : isizwe sa leyo 'nkosi, the tribe of that chief ; imizl ya leliya 
ilizwe, the kraals or villages of that distant country. 

Rem. 3. — The demonstratives, lo, la, le, this, are sometimes made 
more conspicuous and emphatic by suffixing na making lojia, lana, lena; 
as, inkomo lena, this cow here. Kodwa lo 'miintu lona, but that kind 
of person, or a person such as that. Or the general pronoun i and the 
definitive may be used ; as, ku 'belungu amadoda i ivona a sebenza, 
among white people it is the men themselves who work. Kuhle uku- 
funda ; kodwa le ^mfundo lena e zuzelwa ukuba i zo ba isigqoko, i ya 
s 'ahlula ; learning is good ; but just that learning (or that kind of 
learning) which is acquired that it may be a cap (for the head) beats us. 

§ 179. The principal forms of the demonstrative pronouns, 
according to the class and nnmber of the nonns to which they 
belong, and according as they refer to the nearer, more distant, 
or most distant person or thing, are presented in the following : 

Table of Demonstrative Pronouns. 



CLASS. 


INCIPIENTS. 




Tms. 


THAT. 


THAT YONDEE. 


f 1 


umu, um, or u 


lo, lona 


Iowa or lowo 


loya or lowaya 


2 


ili or i 




leli 


lelo 


leliya 


3 


im or in 




le, lena 


leyo 


leya 


4 


isi 




lesi 


leso 


lesiya 


5 


ulu or n 




lolu 


lolo 


loluya 


6 


umu or um, 


etc 


. lo, lona 


Iowa or lowo 


lowaya 


7 


ubu or u 




lobu 


lobo 


lobuya 


I 8 


uku 




loku 


loko 


lokuya 








THESE. 


THOSE. 


THOSE YONDER. 


r 1 


aba or o 




laba 


labo 


labaya 


2 


ama 




la, lana 


lawa or lawo 


lawaya 


' 3, 4\ 

and 5] 


izim, izin, 

izi, etc. 




j-lezi 


lezo 


leziya 


I 6 


imi 




le, lena 


leyo 


leya 



Sect. 5. — D. Interrogative Pronouns. 

^ §180. 1. There is, radically and strictly, but one interroga- 
tive pronoun, namely, ni., what ? But this one radical enters, 
as a constituent, into several different interrogatives of a pro- 
nominal character; as, uhani, in?', ngctkanani ; and into many 
others of an adverbial character ; as, yini, njani, Jcangakanani. 
2. There is, however, another interrogative, pi, where ? 
whence? whither? — which, though properly an adverb, is 
often used in a pronominal sense ; as, iipi, or miqn, who ? ipi, 
lijpi, Icupi, etc., which ? 



92 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Rem. — The interrogative m, as well as pi, is always properly fol- 
lowed, either directly or indirectly, by the compJemental interrogative 
particle na ; thus, igama lint na 9 what name? ubani na f who? kwpi 
na 9 where is it ? ku yipi inkomo na f 

§ 181. 1. The interrogative 7ii always unites with the verb, 
preposition, or other word by which it is preceded, since it has 
an influence on these words to carry the accent forward, in 
words of more than one syllable, from the penultimate to the 
ultimate (§ 51., 2., and § 58., 5., a.) ; thus, 

Ba funani na ? they want what ? u nani na f you are with what ? 
i. e., what is the matter with you? s^ hambelani na 9 we go for what ? 
ba lima ngani na 9 they dig with what ? 

2. The interrogative pronoun m, when it relates to nouns, 
takes a prefix, like adjectives, corresponding to the class and 
number of the noun to which it relates, the prefix also varying 
slightly, as in adjectives, according as the pronoun, ni, is used 
as an attributive, or as a direct predicate ; thus, 

Nifuna umuti omuni na 9 what medicine do you want? uinuti muni 
na 9 what medicine is it? Wa bona isilwane esini na 9 What (kind 
of an) animal did you see? Isilwane sini na 9 What (kind of an) ani- 
mal is it ? 

3. Used in a general impersonal sense, without reference 
to any particular noun, the usual form of this interrogative is 
ini ncof what is it? the prefix being that of the third class 
singular, as of into^ a thing. A more full and emjDhatic form 
of the question, of the same import, is hu yini na ? it is 
what 1 — the general pronoun hit, of the eighth class, constitut- 
ing the subject, and ni with the prefix ^, as before, consti- 
tuting the predicate, before which is used the euphonic copula y. 

4. Sometimes this pronoun ni is used, without any prefix, in 
direct connection with the noun referred to ; in which case the 
accent of the noun is carried forward from its usual place, the 
penult, to the final syllable ; thus, 

Intoni na 9 or ku yintoni na 9 or intoni loku na 9 what thing (is it) ? 
or it is what thing? or what thing is this ? 

§ 182. 1. The interrogative pronoun lobani f or nbani na f 
who? is composed of the incipient u^ of the first class of 
nouns ; the substantive verb ha (of uku ha, to be) ; and the 
radical interrogative ni f — literally, he is what ? i. ^., who is it ? 

2. In its forms and inflections, libani follows the laws of 
nouns of the first class. 

{a^ Vhani makes its plural in o, like iidade, tcbaha, etc.; 
thus, uhani, plural ohconi ; as, ohani na f who are they ? or ha 
ngohani na f they are who ? 

(5.) The personal pronouns corresponding to, or standing fox ubani, 
are the same as those which stand for other nouns of the first class, 
singular and plural ; as, i*, m, ?/e, yena ; ba, bo, bona. 



VERBS. 93 

(c.) In forming the genitive, ubani follows the laws of proper per- 
sonal nouns, eliding the initial vowel, and being preceded by the geni- 
tive particle a hardened by k ; thus, umfana ka ^bani na 9 whose boy? 
ku yinkomo yi ka ^tani na 9 it is the cow of whom ? or whose cow is it? 

Eem.-— The interrogatives ubani and pi are sometimes doubled to 
denote something indefinite ; as, bani-bani, somebody ; pi-pi, some- 
where. 

§ 183. The interrogative pi is primarily an adverb of place, 
signifying, tvheref But it is often used with nouns, taking a 
prefix, like adjectives, corresponding to the class and number 
of the noun to which it refers, in which case it sometimes has 
the force of an interrogative pronoun, equivalent to who f 
which f thus, 

Inkomo yake ipi na 9 his cow where or which is it ? abantu bapi na 9 
where or who are the people. (See § 148., 4.) 

Rem. — This interrogative often takes the preposition nga before it, 
for force or euphony ; as, abantu ba ngapi na 9 (See Adverbs, § 319., 
Rem. 2.) 



CHAPTER V. 
VERBS. 

§ 184. 1. A verb is a word which designates a state either 
of actio7i or of heing / as, si hona^ we see ; ha hamha, they 
walk ; ngi hlezi, I sit, exist. 

2. A verb expresses not only an assertion or an affirmation, 
as in the above examples ; but it may be used also to com- 
mand ; as, tula, be silent ; suha, depart : or be used to 
inquire ; as, ni lona na f do you see ? and also to express an 
action, or state, in a general, abstract sense ; as, uhio pila, to 
live ; uhi tanda, to love. 

§ 185. The root of the verb is that which has no inflection, 
nor connection with person ; and from which the infinitive is 
formed by the use of uku {, — to, in English) ; as, 

Tanda, azi, ya, etc.; from which, by the use of uku, we have uku 
tanda, to love ; ukwazi, to know ; uku ya, to go. From this abstract 
form, all others, in both regular and irregular verbs, are most readily 
derived. 

Rem. 1.— (a.) In the case of all regular verbs, this root or ground 
form constitutes the ordinary imperative in addressing the second per- 
son singular ; as, tanda, love, or love thou ; bona, see, or see thou. 

(b.) But in all irregular (monsyllabic and vowel) verbs, the impera- 
tive differs from this simple root or stem form of the verb, since in 
these verbs the ordinary imperative always takes a euphonic preforma- 
tive— in monosyllabic verbs, yi ; as, yiya, (from ya,) go, or go thou; 
yika, (from ka,) gather, or gather thou ; yiba, (from ba,) be, or be 
thou ; — and in vowel verbs y ; as, yazi, (from azi,) know thou ; yenza^ 
(from enza,) do thou. 



94 CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. 

Rem. 2. — Aside from the above remark, there is another want of 
similarity and uniformity in the second person singular, imperative, of 
verbs, which presents also an objection tj its being taken as the sim- 
plest root or basis of other forms. In regular verbs there are two 
forms which have an imperative force; as, hamba, go thou; or wo 
liamba, thou shalt go : and in irregular verbs there are three such 
forms ; thus, from za, we have ylza, wo za, and zana, come thou. 

Rem, 3. — In view, then, of the numerous limitations and exceptions 
required in regarding the imperative as the root or ground form, it is 
thought to be more simple and easy to take the infinitive, as above 
stated, without its characteristic ukii, as the starting point, from 
which to derive all other forms. 

Sect. 1. — Classificatioii of Verhs. 

A. Kegular and Ieeegulae, Primitive, Derivative, and 

Compound Yerbs. 

§ 186. Yerbs may be divided into the two classes called 
Regular and Irregular^ according as they are inflected with 
unvarying nniforniity, or not, throughout all their modes and 
tenses, afiirmative and negative forms. 

(a.) The characteristics of a regular verb are, that its root 
begins with a consonant, consists of two or more syllables, and 
ends in the vowel a j as, tanda^ sebenza^ hingelela. 

(b.) Yerbs whose roots begin with a vowel, or consist of 
only one syllable, or terminate in some other vowel than «, are 
irregular, deviating, in several resj^ects, from regular verbs, in 
the formation of their modes and tenses, their negative forms, 
etc. (See Irregular Yerbs, Sect. 6., §§ 311-316.) " 

Kem. — The number of irregular verbs is not large. The 
most common are the following : — {a.) Yowel verbs — aka, ala, 
azi, eba^ ehla, enza^ oma^ and osa. (b.) Monosyllabic verbs, 
(some of which also, like the vowel verb azi, end in some 
vowel besides a,) — ha, fa, dhia, I'«, ma, na, pa, sa, tyo, ti, ya, za. 

§ 187. Yerbs may be divided again into the three classes 
called Prrinitive, Derivative, and Compound. 

I. Primitive verbs are those which have their origin in no 
other word ; and signify some simple state of action or being, 
without any modification or accessory idea ; as, bona, see ; 
tanda, love. 

§ 188. II. Derivative verbs are those which are formed 
from other words, either nouns, adjectives, or other verbs, by 
effecting in them some modification of form and meaning. 

{ci^i Yerbs derived from nouns or adjectives are called de- 
nominatives. This class of verbs is very rare in Zulu. As 
specimens we have the following — perha^^s, \d^:u Tcida, to be- 
come large, from Tiulu, large; liku sonda, to worship, from 
Sunday (Sabbath) ; uJcii foshola, to spade, from ifosholo, a 
spade, shovel ; perhaps, uhit geja, to dig, pick, from igeja, a 
pick. 



RADICAL SPECIES. 95 



(5.) A few verbs are Zuluized from other languages ; as, 
tthufolovia, from form (to form or mould bricks); '^^^"i^ hapa- 
tiza, from baptize ; ichu spela^ from spell ; iikii kiika^ from 
cook ; %iku washa, from wash. 

Rem. — Both of these classes of verbs, — denominatives, and those 
Zuluized from other languages, — though derivatives in point of origin, 
are, like the primitives, of a simple or radical character in point of 
signification. 

(c.) But verhal derivatives, or verbs derived from other 
verbs by means of certain specific modifications in the form 
and meaning of the primitive, are by far the most common in 
Zulu, and require special attention. These different forms, 
species^"^ or modifications of a verb, by which its simple, orig- 
inal meaning, has a causative, relative, reflective, reciprocal, or 
some other signification superadded, are obtained with great 
regularity by changing, adding, or inserting a letter or syllable 
in the primitive or stem form, much like what we find in the 
conjugations of the Hebrew verb. 

§ 189. A. The Radical species of the verb is the simple 
primitive, which is generally expressed by the fewest letters, 
and whose signification, as before remarked, is the simple idea 
of the verb without any accessory or contingent modification ; 
as, 

Tanda, love ; hamba, walk ; kuluma, speak. 

Rem. — Verbs of this species, as of all others, generally end in a; as, 
tiku ha, to be ; uku ya, to go ; iiku tanda, to love. But to this rule 
there are a few exceptions ; as, ukwazi, to know ; uku ti, to say. (See 
§186., Rem.) 

§ 190. B. 1. The Relative species or modification of the 
verb is formed from the radical by changing the final vowel 
into ela^ except uku tyo, which makes lolctc i/yolo ', thus, tanda, 
tandela ; hona, honela ; sebenza, sebenzela. 

2. The signification of this species has the force of for, to, 
in relation to, in hehalf of, against, ahont, superadded to the 
simple idea of the radical species ; as, 

Tandela, love for ; bonela, see for ; hambela, walk about ; vukela, 
rise up against. 

Rem. — This species of the verb has considerable latitude and variety 
of meaning, f and supplies the place of several prepositions. It is often 
used with other verbs in the infinitive, with nouns in the locative, with 
adverbs of place ; sometimes to give the verb greater force, and some- 
times with no apparent reason. 

* For some of the forms and species in other Bantu languages, see 
Appendix, Sect. II., Outline Specimens, etc. 

f Dohne calls it " qualifying form," because of its being used as "a 
means of qualifying the meaning of any verb or stem for any purpose." 



96 CAUSATIVE SPECIES. 

§ 191. C. 1. The Causative s][>eGies is formed from the rad- 
ical in various ways : — 

{a^ Chiefly by changing the final vowel into isa / as, 
Tanda, love ; tandisa, cause to love ; bona, see ; bonisa, cause to see. 

(h.) When final a is preceded by k in the radical, the causa- 
tive is often, not always, formed by changing k into s ; as, 

Viika, vusa ; suka, susa ; muka, musa, more frequently muMsa ; 
goduka, godusa, or godukisa. 

(c.) Sometimes Jc or I before final a is changed into ^, to 
form the causative ; as, 

Boboka, boboza ; katala, kataza ; kumbula, kumbuza ; limala, li- 
maza; palala, palaza ; piimula, pumuza ; sondela, sondeza; vela, 
veza ; ivela, weza, or welisa. 

(d.) Some verbs change k before final a into I, to form the 
cansative ; thus, 

Apuka, apula ; dabuka, dabula ; penduka, pendula. 

2. {a.) The most common signification of this species, as the 
name implies, has a causative force suj)eradded to the simple 
idea of the radical. Hence, by changing the radical to the 
causative form, the neuter or intransitive verb becomes transi- 
tive ; and the transitive often takes t wo accusatives instead of 
one ; tlnis, 

Vuka, rise, vusa, raise ; bona into, see a thing, si bonise into, show 
us a thing ; funda amagama, learn letters ; si fundise amagama, 
teach us letters. 

(h.) This modification of the verb oftein implies intensity, 
and sometimes aid, or co-operation, in some action or state ; 
and occasionally imitation, rather than causation ; as, 

Bambisa, hold tight ; sebenzisa, help work ; lalisa, sleep with ; ham- 
bisa kwabelungu, walk like white people. 

Rem. — This species corresponds to the Hiphil conjugation in Hebrew, 
and in some measure to Greek verbs in izo, azo. 

§ 192. D. 1. The Reciprocal species is formed from the 
radical by changing the final vowel into ana, except tyo, 
which makes tyono ', as, tanda, tandana ; hona, honana, 

2. This modification of the verb properly denotes, as its 
name implies, a mutual excliange, equality, difference, like- 
ness, or cooperation, between two or more persons or things, as 
to the state of action or being expressed in the radical form of 
the verb ; as, 

Tandana, love one another ; bonana, see one another ; pambana, 
meet one another, cross, contradict ; ukwazana, to know one another, 
be intimate. 



REFLECTIVE SPECIES. \) i 

§ 193. E. 1. The Reflective sjjecies is formed from the rad- 
ical by prefixing the particle 2i to its root ; thus, 

Zitanda, zibona. But in the case of vowel verbs, z only is prefixed 
to the root, to form the reflective species ; thus, zazi, from azi; zenza, 
from enza; zosa, from osa. 

2. In this modification of the verb, subject and object are 
identical, the action being represented as performed by the 
subject upon himself ; thus, 

Uku zitanda, to love one's self ; uku zazi, to know one's self ; uku 
zosa, to roast one's self. 

Rem.— This species corresponds to the Hithpael conjugation in 
Hebrew. 

§ 194. F. 1. The Subjective species^ is formed from the 
radical by changing the final vowel into eka / as, tandeJca, 
from tanda / hlupeha^ from lilupa. 

2. This modification of the verb represents a passive subjec- 
tion, either real, deserved, or possible, to the state of action or 
being expressed by the radical ; as, 

Tandeka, be lovely ; sabeka, be fearful, frightful ; zondeka, be hate- 
ful ; sweleka, be needed, wanting. * 

Eem.— Verbs of this species resemble Greek adjectives in tos or teos ; 
the Latin participle in ndus, and adjective in bills ; and, in some meas- 
ure, verbs of the Niphal conjugation in Hebrew. 

§ 195. G. 1. Another species^ which may be called the Depo- 
nent^ is formed from the radical by sufiixing the adjunct hala, 
to the root ; thus, ' bonakala,' from ' bona ;' ' fihlakala,' from 
' fihla.' Trisyllabic verbs generally drop the final syllable and 
sufiix halcc to the second syllable of the root ; thus, ' cunukala,' 
from 'cunula.' 

2. This modification, which applies only to verbs of an 
active transitive character, lays aside that transitive quality 
which the verb has in its radical form, and gives the deponent 
species a subjective, neuter, or passive force, much like the 
subjective species. It denotes that the person, or thing, 
spoken of, is in the state or condition described by the passive 
voice of the radical form ; but involves no reference to any 
agency by which the person or thing was put in such state or 
condition ; thus, 

Bonakala, appear, come in sight, be seen, from bona, see ; ukivona- 
kala, to be depraved, sinful, from ukwona, to abuse, sin against ; uku 
zwakala, be heard, felt, or sensible, from uku zwa, to hear, feel. 

* Dohne calls this " the qualitative form," because of its serving to 
determine the quality of the verb, 

1 



98 DIMINUTIVE SPECIES. 

§ 196. H. 1. A Diminutive sjjecies is formed by redupli- 
cating the radical verb ; tlms, ' fiinafmia,' a reduplication of 
' funa ;' ' zamazama,' from ' zama ;' ' xegaxega,' from ' xega.' 
In reduplicating trisyllabic radicals, the final syllable of the 
root is omitted in the first part of the compound ; thus, ' bovti- 
boviila,' from 'bovula;' ' f onyofonyoza,' from 'fonyoza.' 

2. This modification of the verb generally denotes, as the 
name implies, a diminution of the idea expressed by the simple 
radical — a feeble action — and hence, often, a continuous repe- 
tition, which gives the reduplicated form a frequentative 
character; as, 

Funafuna, seek a little, seek in a feeble, trifling manner, and hence 
to continue, or repeat the search, seek again and again ; zamazama, 
shake repeatedly, move to and fro ; hambahamba, walk about in a 
slow and feeble manner, go on continually ; as, Ngi ya hambahamba 
zonke izikati, I go about all the time. 

§ 197. Compound species may be produced by coinhining 
two or more of the above modifications in one and the same 
word : — 

1. The relative and reflective may be combined ; as in, 
'zikalela,' cry for one's self, from 'kala,' cry; 'zitengela,' buy 
for one's self, from ' tenga,' buy. 

2. The causative and reflective may be combined; as in, 
' zitandisa,' cause one's self to love ; ' zisindisa,' save one's self. 

3. The reciprocal and causative ; as, ' linganisa,' make recip- 
rocally equal, measure, compare, from ' linga ;' ' tandanisa,' 
cause to love one another. 

4. The subjective and relative ; as, ' hlupekela,' suffer for ; 
' dingekela,' be needed for ; ' bambekela,' be apprehended, or 
apprehensible for. 

5. The deponent and causative ; as, ' bonakalisa,' cause to 
appear. 

6. The reflective, deponent, and causative ; as ' zibonaka- 
lisa,' cause one's self to appear, or be seen. 

T. The reflective, relative, and reciprocal ; as, ' zivumelana,' 
agree together for themselves. 

8. The reciprocal, causative, and reflective ; as, ' zilingani- 
sela,' cause themselves to be reciprocally equal. 

Rem. — Other compound species may be formed in a similar manner ; 
but the above examples afford sufficient illustration. 

§ 198. Another class of compound species may be formed 
also by redujylicatiiig some of the simple modiflcations. Com- 
pounds of this kind, especially the reduplicated causative 
species, are often intensive in their signification ; as, 

Funisisa, seek diligently ; tandisisa, love ardently ; bambelela, hold 
on to, catch and cling to ; bonelela, look to for an example, conform 
to, imitate. 



GENERAL REMARKS UPON THE SPECIES. 99 

§ 199. General Remarks upon the Species : — 

1. Tlioiigli, in theory, and so far as mere form is concerned, 
any two species may he comhined, yet in point of signification 
some combinations would he incompatihle, and hence they do 
not occnr. Such are the reflective and reciprocal ; the reflec- 
tive and subjective ; the reflective and deponent. 

2. But few verbs can he found in the language, naturally 
subject to each of the foregoing modifications, w^hether simple 
or compound. The simple are, of course, more common than 
the compound ; and among the simple, the relative and causa- 
tive are found moi'e frequent than the others ; while the 
subjective, the deponent, and the diminutive species, are com- 
paratively rare. 

3. Though the significations of the species are generally 
quite regular and fixed, within certain limits, yet these limits 
are so wide, and the exceptions to the general rules are so 
numerous, that the exact force of any modification, and even 
the admission of it, whether simple or compound, in any j^ar- 
ticular verb, must be learned, in most cases, from vernacular 
use, and not be presumed from its general import or analogy. 
Some verbs do not admit of certain modifications ; in some 
verbs the modification gives no particular additional force to 
the derived species ; while in some instances the modification 
is highly idiomatic. 

4. Some verbs, of a simple, radical use and import, have 
now only a derived form, the root having become obsolete, or 
lost perhaps, and its imjDort replaced by the derived form now 
in use. Or, the apparently derived form may have been 
really the original root, as its import now indicates. 

Such are thefollowing—baleka, haneka, zingela, fiwiana, fana, oyisa, 
kwisa, ziJDekela, zibukula. 

5. Sometimes an available modification is dispensed with, 
and the force of it given by other words, as by a preposition, 
noun, or b}- another verb, though the two modes of expression 
are not often synonymous ; thus, 

Ngi puzise avian zi, or ngi pe amanzi ukubn. ngi puze, cause me to 
drink water, or give me water that I may drink ; lungisa into, or yenza 
into ukuba i lunge, straighten a thing, or make a thing to be straight. 

§ 200. III. Compound verbs, or verbs composed of a verb 
and some other part of speech, or of two verbs, so combined 
as to form but a single w^ord, are not numerous in the Zulu 
language. Indeed, the number of well-established, genuine 
compounds, is small ; yet specimens, more or less perfect, are 
not wanting. 

1. A VERB AND A NOUN are occasionally found in combina- 
tion ; as, 'uku pumanyovane,' or 'uku pumanyovu,' to back 



100 CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. 

out, or to go out backwards (as a wasp — ' inyovu ' — from its 
hole in the wall) ; ' uku bambisamnkn,' to stifle, smother ; 
'uku tatisitiipa,' to number six. (See § 140., Rem. 1., 2.) 

2. A VERB AND AN ADJECTIVE are sometimos found in com- 
bination ; as, ' ukwenzamhlope,' to white-wash ; ' uku ham- 
baze,' to go naked. But the words in the first example might 
be written separate, with as much propriety, perhaps ; thus, 
' ukwenza mhlope ;' and the ze^ in the second example, might 
be considered an adverb. Similar remarks would hold also in 
respect to the combination of a verb and noun, in the para- 
graph above. 

3. A VERB AND AN ADVERB are rarclj combined in one 
word, except in a few instances where an adverb, as he or ze^ 
is suffixed to the verb ; thus, ' hambake,' go then ; ' lalaze,' 
sleep without a covering. 

4. Two VERBS are rarely combined in one word ; as, ' tanda- 
buka,' love to look ; ' tandabuza,' love to ask. 

5. The GEMINATION or reduplication of verbs, as, ' funafuna,' 
'hambahamba,' has been noticed already as forming one spe- 
cies of derwative verbs. (See § 196.) 

Sect. 2. — Classification of Verbs — (continued). 

B. Principal and Auxiliary ; Transitive and Intransi- 
tive ; Active and Passive ; Defective and Idiomatic 
Yerbs. 

§ 201. Yerbs may be classified according to their import and 
office, and be divided into the two orders called — Principal or 
[N^otional, and Auxiliary or Relational Yerbs. (See §§ T0-Y2.) 

A. Notional verbs are those which express a notion or idea, 
either of action or of being. These are divided into the two 
general classes called — Transitive and Intransitive. 

§ 202. 1. Transitive verbs express such an action as requires 
the addition of an object to complete the seuse ; as, 

JSgi bonile abantu, I have seen the people ; si tanda inkosi, we love 
the king. 

2. Intransitive verbs express such an action or state as does 
not require the addition of an object to complete the sense ; as, 

Si Jiamba, we walk ; ngi pila, I live. 



Rem. — Some verbs may be used either transitively or intransii 
the connection alone showing to which class they belong in a given 
case ; as, lima, konza, temba, baleka, sebenza. 

§ 203. Transitive verbs may express an action in two ways ; 
and for this purpose they have two forms, which are called the 
active and jxtssive voices. The Isizulu seeks the use of the 
latter more than the former. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 101 

1. The active voice represents the agent as acting upon 
some person, or thing, called the object / as, 

Abantu ha zi bona izinkomo, the people see the cattle. 

2. The passive voice represents the object as being acted 
upon by the agent — the object of the verb, the accusative, in 
the former case, becoming the subject or nominative in the 
latter — as, 

Izinkomo zi boniwe abantu, or ngabantu, the cattle are seen by the 
people. 

Rem. — From the very nature of the reflective, reciprocal, subjective, 
and deponent species, they can seldom or never take the passive form, 
except in some few instances, where the radical has given place to 
them. (See §199., 4.) 

§ 201:. 1. The passive voice is genevsillj foriJied by inserting 
w {u changed to w) before the final vowel of the active voice ; 
thus, 

Tanda, love, tandwa, be loved ; bo7ia, see, bonwa, be seen. 

2. Most of the irregular (monosyllabic and vowel) verbs 
form the passive by inserting iiv before the final vowel of the 
active; thus, 

Ulcu pa, to give, uku piwa, to be given ; ukwaka, to build, ukwa- 
kiwa, to be built ; ukwenza, to do, ukwenziwa, to be done. Some reg- 
ular verbs form the passive in the same way ; as, buka, bukiwa, or 
bukwa ; yala, yaliwa, or yaliva. 

Rem. 1. — Verbs in the present perfect tense, (which terminate in He,) 
drop Z in forming the passive ; thus, tandile, tandiwe ; bonile, boniwe. 

Rem. 2. — The verb bulala, kill, drops I (and inserts w) in the final syl- 
lable, in forming the passive, in all the tenses ; thus, bulala, kill, 
bulawa, be killed, buleive, has been killed. 

§ 205. When the consonants ^, m^ m5, or ^, occur in the 
medial or final syllables of a verb, they are generally changed, 
in forming the passive, according to certain euphonic laws, as 
already stated (§ 33.) ; thus, 

1. {a.) B changes to ty ; thus, 'loba,' write, 'lotywa,' be 
written; 'tabata,' take, Hatyatwa,' be taken ;' ' babaza,' praise, 
' batyazwa,' be praised ;' ' hlabelela,' sing, ' hlatyelelwa,' be 
sung. 

(b.) But B^ in some cases, especially when followed by ^, 
changes to^', cognate of ty ; thus, 'bubisa,' destroy, 'bujiswa,' 
be destroyed; ' baba,' entrap, 'bajwa,' or 'bajiwa,' be en- 
trapped. 

2. 31 changes to ny / thus, ' tuma,' send, ' tunywa,' be sent ; 
' hloma,' equip, ' hlonywa,' be equipped ; ' shumayela,' speak, 
'shunyayelwa,' be spoken. 

3. MB changes to nj ; thus, ' bamba,' catch, ' banjwa,' be 
caught; ' hamba,' walk, 'hanjwa,' be walked; ' hlambulula,' 
cleanse, ' hlanjululwa,' ber cleansed. 



102 RELATIONAL VERBS. 

4. P changes to ty ; thus, ' hlupa,' persecute, ' hlutywa,' be 
persecuted; M^opa,' bind, 'botywa,' be bound; ' elapa,' cure, 
' elatywa,' be cured. 

§ 206. 1. The verb uhwazi, to know, and uhu t% to say, 
(which terminate in ^,) suffix wa to form the passive in the 
present, past, and future tenses ; thus, aziwa, be known ; tiwa^ 
be said. But in the inflected forms of these verbs, {azile and 
tile^) the passive is formed, as in other verbs, by dropping I 
and inserting w / thus, aziwe^ has been known ; tiwe^ has been 



2. But the verb iikii tyo, to say, retains the final o in all the 
modes and tenses of the passive voice ; thus, uhu tyiwo, to be 
said ; hit he Jcu tyiwo^ it had been said ; hu nge tyiwo^ it can 
not be said ; ma ku tyiwo^ let it be said. 

3. The verbs uJcii zwa, to hear, and 'loJcu Iwa^ to fight, make 
the passive, like other monosyllabic verbs, by inserting iw 
before final a / or, in the present perfect, by dropping Z and 
inserting w ; thus, tihu zwivm^ to be heard ; itku Iwiioa^ to be 
fought. The latter is sometimes contracted, however, making 
Uwa instead of Iwiwa ; and, for the passive form of the 
former, {ziviwa^) the deponent form, zwahala^ of passive im- 
port, is generally used. 

4. The verbs kolwa^ believe, from hokt^ satisfy ; and kohlwa^ 
forget, from koJda, escape memory, are generally used in the 
passive form, as here given ; although the signification as- 
signed in our language, as above, is of an active import ; but 
their active form is not wholly obsolete ; thus, si ya Icolwa, we 
believe, i. e.^ are satisfied ; Mi si hola^ it satisfies us ; si hohl- 
iwe^ we have forgotten ; or hu si kohlile^ it has escaped our 
memory. 

Rem. — Intransitive verbs, which usually have, in other languages, 
only the active form, often take the passive in Zulu ; and, by thus 
becoming less personal and definite, they help to gratify the native's 
love of an indirect and general style. 

§ 207. B. Relational verbs, sometimes called auxiliary or 
helping^ are those which are used in connection with notional 
verbs, to aid in expressing their relations of mode and time. 
They are ha^ ya^ za, nga^ raa^ sa^ ha^ and ti. The force of 
some of these verbs is often best expressed in English by some 
adverb or conjunction ; as, noio^ when^ yet^ not yet^ still, 'until. 

Rem. 1. — Doubtless, originally, all the verbs of this class were mere 
notional verbs ; and most of them yet retain that character, being still 
used, except nga, sometimes as principal, and sometimes as auxiliary 
verbs. 

Rem. 3.— The power of the verb as an auxiliary is a modification of 
that wliich it has, or had, as a principal verb, as the following para- 
graphs will show. 



AUXILIARY BA. 103 

§ 208. 1. The auxiliary ha [liku ha^ to be,) is derived from 
the idea of existence ^ and corresj^onds, in many respects to 
the auxiliaries be^ am, was, in English, except that it is not 
used in the present tense. 

2. The pronoun nominative is used before this auxiliary, and 
repeated again before the principal verb ; thus, 

Si he si tanda. By contraction, however, the pronoun is often 
omitted before the auxiliary ; thus, be si tanda, we were loving ; si he 
si tandile, contracted, he si tandile, we had loved. 

Rem. 1. — Sometimes this auxiliary drops its final vowel and unites 
with the pronoun following when it consists of a single vowel ; thus, 
u hu tanda, for u he u tanda, thou wast loving, literally, thou wast 
thou loving ; i hi tanda, for i he i tanda, it was loving. 

Rem. 2. — Sometimes the auxiliary itself is dropped ; thus, wa u 
tanda, for wa he u tanda. 

Rem. 3. — The pronouns u of the first class, singular, and a of the sec- 
ond class, plural, often change to e ; and ha of the first class, plural, to 
he, for greater euphony, precision, or variety, before this auxiliary, es- 
pecially in participial or accessory clauses ; thus, e he e tandile, he 
liaving loved. The pronoun u changes to a in the potential mode when 
he is used with the auxiliary nga ; thus, ahe e nga tanda, he might or 
could love. 

§ 209. 1. The auxiliary ya ((ukit ya, to go,) is derived from 
the idea of action. In the present tense it marks emjpliasis, 
and corresponds to the auxiliary do, in English ; thus, si ya 
tanda, we do love. 

Rem. — Doubtless the pronoun nominative was originally used with 
this auxiliary, and repeated again before the principal verb ; thus, si 
ya si tanda. (See i^ 208., 2.) 

2. In the past tense, the auxiliary ya, or rather ye, often de- 
notes emphasis, especially in the negative, like the English 
auxiliary did. Sometimes it denotes, continued, and then in- 
complete, indefinite action, constituting a progressive form of 
the verb. In both cases the pronoun may be either repeated 
or omitted before the principal verb ; thus, 

Ba ye (ha) nga honanga, they did not see ; sa ye tanda, or, sa ye si 
tanda, we did love, literally, w-e went loving, or we were loving. 

3. Sometimes this auxiliary ya, or ye, has no other force 
than to mark the time of an action or state, differing not much 
from ha or he ; thus, 

Sa ye si tandile, we had loved : nga ye ngi ngumfana, I was a boy. 
So in the future ; thus, si ya hu tanda, we shall love. 

§ 210. 1. The auxiliary za {iiku za, to come,) is derived, like 
ya, from the idea of action. Both za and ya are used to aid 
in forming the future tense, and thus denote future destina- 
tion, either predictive or imperative. In the ordinary, uncon- 
tracted form, with the infinitive, they simply predict, or 
denote intention ; and correspond to shall in the first person, 
and to ivill in the second and third, in English ; thus, 



104 AUXILIARY NGA. 

Ngi za ku tanda, I shall love, or I come, or am coming to love ; ni 
ya ku bona, you will see, or ye go, or are going to see. 

2. In the shortest, contracted, or o form, they express a de- 
termination, a cofTimand, hke will in the first person, and shall 
in the second and third, in English ; thus, 

So tanda, we will love ; no hamba, ye shall walk. (See § 53., 6.) 

3. The verb tiku za is often employed with another in form- 
ing a Idnd of inceptive, periphrastic conjugation, to denote the 
intention, or heing on the point of doing something ; thus, 

Ngi be ngi za ku bona, or be ngi za ku bona, I designed, or I was 
about to see. 

Rem. — Much of this idea of immediate subsequence— heing about to 
do, or to be — enters into nearly all the varied forms and uses of this 
verb in connection with others. 

• 

4. A frequent use of this word {za, or ze,) is to express a 
connection hetioeen a jpreceding and a subsequent clause or prop- 
osition, pointing to an inference, explanation, or succession, 
of some kind, and having the force of and, then, till, or until, 
according to the circumstances. In this sense it is used in the 
present, past, and future tense, but most frequently in the 
past ; and the pronoun nominative is repeated before the prin- 
cipal verb ; thus. 

Si ze si fike, until we arrive ; sa za sa bona, and we saw, i. e., we 
came we saw, or then we saw ; si ya ku linda ba ze ba muke, we will 
watch till they depart. 

Rem. -De (from da. extend, reach to, advance) is sometimes used like 
za, ze, in the sense of until ; as, si de si tande, until we love. 

6. The verb uku za is sometimes used with a negative, 
before another verb, in the sense of never, not in the least; 
thus, 

A ngi zanga ngi bone, I never saw ; a si za^iga si libale, we have not 
delayed in the least. 

§ 211. 1. The auxiliary nga (uTcu oiga, — obsolete in Isizulu, 
— to be able, possible, or desirable,) is derived from the idea of 
contingency. 

(a.) When it follows the direct nominative to the verb, it 
corresponds, in a measure, to 97ia2/, and sometimes to can, in 
the same situation in English, ex^resBing possibility or proba- 
bility — contingency or power dependent upon circumstances 
external to the agent ; thus. 

Si nga tarida, we may love ; ngi nga hamba, I can go. 

{b.) But when it precedes the direct subject of the verb, it 
corresponds, in a measure, to 7nay^ in the same situation in 
English, or more nearly sometimes to ought; and thus ex- 



AUXILIARY MA. 105 

presses obligation^ loillingness^ or power dependent upon cir- 
cumstances internal to the agent ; thus, 
Si nga si tanda, or nga si tanda, we may Jove, or we ought to love. 

2. (a). A duplicate use of this auxiliary, in which case there 
is also, generally, a duplicate use of the pronoun, gives a some- 
what modified combination of the two ideas of possibility and 
obligation, amounting to earnest desire or wish • thus. 

Si nga si nga bona, we wish we could see, or we desire to see. 

(5.) A duplicate use of this auxiliary, and sometimes a gem- 
inated reduplication, is found in combination with sa or se and 
uliHo ti, in the sense of utinam^ oh that ! would that, may, 
etc., expressing strong desire, longing, entreaty that a thing 
may or might be done ; thus, 

Se kii nga ti si nga buya, or se nga ti si nga biiya. oh that we might 
return ; se nga nga ti nga be ba penduka, oh that they would repent ; 
se nga nga ti nga be na sola kona, oh that ye had remained here ; se 
ngati Inkosi i nga si pa, may the Lord grant us. 

Rem.— Sometimes the se is omitted, as in the midst of a sentence, or 
otherwise ; thus, sa vuma ukii ba nga ti si nga sebenza, we assented, to 
wit, would that we could work ; nga ti a nga buya a fike, oh that he 
would return and come. 

3. This auxiliary nga is also used with uJcu ti, (preceded by 
a pronoun,) in the sense of it seems, or seems to he, literally, it 
can say, or it means / thus, 

Ku nga ti inkomo, it seems to be a cow : ku nga ti umuntu, it seems 
to be a person : ngi nga ti indoda, I seem to be a man ; kivo ba ku nga 
ti umuti, it will seem to be a tree. 

4. This auxiliary is used also with the substantive verb, vkic 
ha, taking sometimes the general pronoun kti or i, and some- 
times omitting it, in the sense of jjerhai^s, i. e., it may he ; 
thus, 

I nga ba u za kufika, perhaps he will arrive ; ku nga ba ba hambile, 
perhaps they have gone ; ngabe u hambile, perhaps he has gone. 

§ 212. The auxiliary 7na {liku ma, to stand,) derived from 
the idea of suffer ctnce, corresponds to let, in English ; and 
expresses a command, an exhortation, or a request ^ as, ma ngi 
hone, let me see ; ma si tande, let us love. 

Rem. 1.— Sometimes this verb takes one of the imperative forms 
common to a monosyllabic verb, as mana, manini, when it may be 
counted either as the first of two principal verbs, or as an emphatic 
auxiliary ; thus, man' u bone, do see, literally, stand thou (and) see ; 
manini ni bone, do ye see, or stand ye and see ; mana si bone, stand 
thou (and let) us see, or do let us see. 

Rem. 2. — This verb, especially in a contracted form of the infinitive, 
uma, is used as a conjunction, in the sense of if, ivhen, since, ichether, 
that ; as, uma si fikile, if, or when we have arrived. Ukuba is often 
used in a similar manner. 



106 AUXILIARY SA. 

§ 213. The auxiliary sa {uku sa, to be clear, open, light, 
plain,) is derived from the idea of actualization complete, con- 
stant, OT prospective, according to the tense, with more or less 
of implied reference to the opposite — a liability to interruption 
and failure. 

1. In the past tenses, and often in the present and future, 
(in its inflected form se,) it denotes completeness, having the 
force of already, quite, entirely, just, just now, even now, 
when, then • as, 

' Se si bonile,' we have already seen ; ' se ngi bona,' I just (this mo- 
ment) see, or I already see ; ' ni nga pumula se ni fikile,' you can rest 
when you have arrived. 

2. But, by an easy deflection, in the present and future, and 
in the past in its uninflected form, sa, it denotes continuation, 
having the force of still, yet, etc.; thus, 

' Ngi sa tanda,' I still love, or I am yet loving. 

Eem. 1. — The inflected form se generally precedes the direct pronom- 
inal nominative ; often takes a reduplication of the same for itself ; 
and refers to completed actions or states, — except when used with an 
adjective, adverb, or preposition, without a verb ; thus, ' se ngi bonile,' 
I have already seen ; ' ba se be hambile,' when they had gone : ' i se i 
file,' contracted, ' i si file,' it is already dead ; ' ba se mnandi,' they (are) 
still well ; ' u se kona,' he (is) still present. 

Rem. 2.— The inflected form is used, however, occasionally with the 
present and future, to denote a state of readiness or incipiency in 
respect to the idea signified by the verb ; thus, ' se ngi tanda,' now I 
love ; ' se si vuma,' we now consent ; ' se ngi za ku hamba,' already 
am I on the point of going. 

Rem. 3. — The uninflected form sa usually follows the direct nomina- 
tive pronoun ; and refers to the present or future, but sometimes to the 
past with an allusion to the present ; thus, ' ni sa bona,' you still see ; 
' ngi sa ya ku hamba,' I shall still go (notwithstanding I am detained 
by the rain). 

3. With a negative, this auxiliary {sa, uninflected, and com- 
ing immediately after the direct pronoun nominative,) signi- 
fies 710 more, no longer, never, or never again / thus, 

'A ngi sa yi ku bona,' I shall no more see ; *a ngi sa tandanga,' I 
have never loved : ' a i sa baleki,' it runs away no more ; 'ngi be ngi 
ya yi funa, a ngi sa bonanga,' I went in search of it, (but) I never saw- 
it. 

Rem. 1. — One or more contractions are often made between this and 
contiguous relational words : thus, -in the past, ' u su ti,' for ' u se u ti ;' 
' i si ti,' for ' i se i ti ;' ' e se fikile,' for ' e se e fikile.' 

So in the future, ' a ni se ku hamba,' for ' a ni sa yi ku hamba,' 
where y is dropped, and a-i give e ; ' a ka so ze a bone,' for ' a ka sa yi 
ku za a bone,' where 2/^ and fc are dropped, a-u give o, and a in za 
changes to e. 

Rem. 2.— Sometimes the pronoun preceding this auxiliary is dropped ; 
thus, ' ngi iiga bi sa hamba,' for ' ngi nga bi ngi sa hamba ;' 'a nga be 
sa hamba,' for ' a nga be e sa hamba.' 



AUXILIARY KA. 107 

§ 214. 1. The auxiliary ha {ithu ka^ to reach, attain, take, 
take lip, out, olf, as water from a well, or fruit from a tree,) is 
derived from the idea of actualization occasional or indefinite. 
In some of its uses, especially as an auxiliary, it refers chiefly 
to time ; in which case, the occasional or indefinite being most 
prominent, it signifies once^ ever, at any time, soinetimes, yet, 
hitherto. In other of its uses, the mere actualization being 
more prominent, it signifies ^?^ consequence, accordingly, so 
then, jnst, shnply ; thus, 

' Na ke na bona na?' did you ever see ? ' ba funa ba funa, ba yi to- 
lake,' they hunted and hunted, and accordingly found it. 

2. This auxiliary is often used with the negative, especially 
in participial, or independent, explanatory clauses, in the sense 
of not yet, i^revious to, hefore, tlms constituting a counterpart 
to sa, se, in the afiirmative ; as, . 

'A ngi ka boni,' I do not yet see ; ' si ya ku hamba, ilanga li nga ka 
puaii,' we shall go before sun-rise— the sun not yet having risen ; • tina 
s' ake kona lapa abelungu be nga ka fiki,' we built here previous to the 
arrival of the white people. 

3. Tliis auxiliary is often used with the imperative, and in 
other connections also, to excite attention, to mollify a phrase, 
or as a mere expletive, sometliing like the Latin and the Greek 
age, or the English phrase, come, come on, come noio, well, well 
then, well now, so then / thus, 

' Ma ke ngi hambe,' come let me go ; ' ma ke u suke,' well now get 
away, just go off. 

Rem. 1. — Contractions often occur in connection with this auxiliary ; 
thus, ' a ke ni beke,' or • ka ni beke,' for 'ma ke ni beke,' now just 
notice; ' u nga ku bone na?' for • u nga ke u bone na?' would you 
merely see ? • ni ya 'u ke ni bone na ? ' for ' ni ya ku ke ni bone na ? ' 
shall you never see ? 

Rem. 2. — As an adverbial expletive ke is often suffixed to other 
words— verbs, adverbs, nouns, etc., carrying the accent forward, in 
such words, from the penult to the final syllable ; thus, ' hambake,' go 
then ; 'yeboke,' oh yes ; 'inkomoke,' just a cow of course. 

§ 215. The auxiliary ti {ukio ti, to say, mean, or signify,) is 
derived from the idea of designation. It is used to introduce 
or specify some state or act, and to give it prominence ; or else 
to serve as a medium of some modification, which the principal 
verb is to derive either from other auxiliaries or from some in- 
flection of this one ; thus, 

Se ku nga ti ngi nga tanda, oh that I may love, literally, already it 
would say I may love. (See § 211.) 

Rem. -The more common among the auxiliaries of the Swahili verbs 
are : kua, to be ; kivisha, to finish ; kuja, to come ; ku pasa, ought, 
must. Among the auxiliaries in Kongo we find : vita, be first, soon ; 
toma, be nice, well ; lenda, possess, be able ; sala, remain ; zola, love, 
want, wish ; mana, finish, completely. 



lOB PKOPEETIES OF VERBS. 

§ 216. There are certain verbs in Isizulu wliicli may be 
called Idiomatic^ as their use, or construction with other 
words, is somewhat peculiar, and their force is generally best 
denoted, in Engh'sh, by the use of certain adverbs or conjunc- 
tions. Of this class are the following : — sanchi, {sa, clear, 
ready § 213., and andula, precede, surpass, effect,) just now, 
this moment ; kandu, {ka, reach, attain, take § 214., and an- 
dida, surpass, effect,) then, so that, in order that ; cityu^ {city a, 
sharpen, bring to a point,) at the point of, almost, well nigh ; 
poiisu^ {ponsa, throw at,) almost, like, well nigh ; Mcya, again ; 
pinda, again ; funa, lest ; ngapana^ {j^a^ s^i'^-^t,) must be ; 
onusa, must not ; qede^ {qeda^ finish,) when, after ; ti, and. 

Rem. — As belonging to this class of verbs, the idiomatic, may be 
classed, also, the following : fumcma, come to, find, find out, be too 
late ; as, fiimana u fiJce e se e mukile, you come too late, he having 
already left. Hla. take place, happen ; as. ica lila ica ti, he happened 
and said, or he happened to say. Musa, send away, must not, far be it 
from thee. Suka, be gone. liana, stand, live, all hail, since, while. 

Note.— For Defective Verbs, see g 317. 

Sect. 3. — Properties of Yerhs. 

§ 21T. The only properties belonging to the verb in Zulu 
are voice^ mode^ and tense. For remarks on voice^ and the 
rules for forming the -passive^ see §§ 203-206. ^ 

Eem.— The distinctions of niuiiber 2in^ 'person, which are attributed 
to the verb in English and some other languages, are not marked at all 
in the Zulu verb, the form of the verb in this language remaining the 
same, whatever the number and person of the noun or pronoun nomin- 
ative, except, perhaps, the second person plural, imperative, where the 
pronoun is suffixed to the verb, giving it the semblance of an inflec- 
tion ; thus, hambani, go ye. (See § 51., 2.) 

A.— ON THE MODES. 

§ 218. 1. Jlode denotes the manner of the action or state 
expressed by the verb. It shows the relation of reality be- 
tween that action or state and the speaker, whether existing, 
conceived of, or willed. 

2. This is effected in two, or rather in three ways — either 
by an inflection of the verb, or by the use of auxiliaries, or else 
by both of these means combined. 

Eem.— In its inflections and auxiliaries, and especially in the numer- 
ous and extensive combinations to which these auxiliaries are subject, 
the Zulu has a wonderful store of means at command, for the expres- 
sion of both mode and tense, in almost every shade of variety. The 
number of its forms, with nice shades of difference, with some also of 
seemingly synonymous import, has been greatly multiplied, doubtless, 
through the absence of that restraint, and fixed uniformity, which 
writing and printing give a language : and doubtless, also, through the 
adoption of various cognate dialectic forms. 



NUMBEE OF MODES. 109 

§ 219. The whole numher of modes may be conveniently 
reduced, however, to six ; — the Infinitive^ the Indicative^ the 
Potential^ the Optative, the Imperative, and the Subjunctive. 

§ 220. I. 1. The Infinitive mode is formed from the verbal 
root by means of the particle uku ;^ thus, 

Uku tanda, to love, from the root tanda, love ; uku ya, to go, from 
the root ya ; ukwazi, to know, from the root azi. 

2. a. The infinitive mode expresses an action or state indef- 
initely. It has the sense of the verb in a substantive form, 
and constitutes an abstract verbal noun ; thus, icku dhla, to 
eat ; iikxidhla, food ; iikii pila, to live ; ukupilcc, life. 

h. The infinitive is used in forming some of the tenses, espe- 
cially the future ; in which case the initial to is elided ; thus, 

Ngi ya ku bona, I shall see. The same elision takes place after ya 
and za, used as principal verbs, and in some other instances ; but this 
elision is generally marked by the use of an apostrophe : thus, sa ya 'ku 
bona, we went to see ; u ye 'ku tenga, he has gone to trade. 

3. The negative of this mode is formed by using the negative 

particle nga between the sign uku and the root of the verb, 

and changing the final a of the verbal root, in the active voice, 

to i ; thus, 

Uku nga tandi, not to love. Before vowel verbs the a of nga is 
elided ; thus, uku ng' azi, not to know ; uku ng' enzi, not to do. 

§ 221. II. 1. The Indicative mode is the root of the verb 
with no other inflection or auxiliary than those required to ex- 
press the time and condition of the verbal action or being. 

2. This mode is that form of the verb which is used in mak- 
ing assertions, and sometimes inquiries, either direct, or acces- 
sory, positive or negative. 

a. In expressing a direct assertion, this mode does not differ 
from the indicative in the English, and many other languages ; 
as. 

Si ya tanda, we do love ; ni bonile, ye have seen. 

h. In expressing a direct interrogation, the words in this, as 
in all the other modes in this language, are arranged as in the 
affirmative sentence, to which is added, generally, at the end, 
but sometimes inserted, the interrogative particle na / thus, 

Ni y§, tanda na 9 do ye love ? u bonile na 9 hast thou seen ? 

3. The indirect or accessory use of this mode occurs in those 
secondary clauses of a compound sentence, which are some- 
times prefixed or inserted, but generally subjoined, to express 

* The sign of the infinitive in Swahili, the Kamba, Mbundu and some 
others is ku ; as, kupenda, to love, etc. In the Bihe, it is oku; in the 
Setyuana, go ; in the Kongo, it was formerly ku, but of late, in many 
instances, this has been lost, become obsolete. 



110 NUMBER OF MODES. 

the time^ cause^ motive, means, way, manner, or condition of 
the verbs, with which they are connected in the principal 
clauses. Hence, in rendering such clauses into English, we 
often preface them with such connectives as, when, while, 
since, hefore, after, as, for, heca^ose, that, so that, and, if, 
although. Sometimes we render such clauses into English by 
making use of a relative pronoun ; and often, by a participle, 
with the noun or pronoun in what is called the case absolute or 
independent ; thus. 

Si ya hu buya ngomso abanye be si siza, we shall return to-morrow 
(because) others help us ; nga bona inyoka ngi hamba emfuleni, I saw a 
snake (while) I was walking by the river ; sa hamba si beka nga se- 
zansi, we went looking down country. 

4. This explanatory indicative mode is generally the same, 
in form, as the direct indicative. It differs from the direct, in 
not using the auxiliary ya in the present tense ; in the pro- 
noun tc, third person singular, first class, and a, third person 
plural, second class, being changed to e / and da, third person 
plural, first class, being changed to he / and partly, or some- 
times, in using the negative nga after the pronoun nominative, 
and sometimes also after the principal verb, instead of the neg- 
ative a only before that pronoun ; thus, 

Ngi ya bona innuntu e hamba, I see a person walking ; safiha, be nga 
ka muki, we arrived, they not yet having departed. 

Rem. 1.— This explanatory use of the indicative, in secondary clauses, 
to express adverbial, subordinate relations, has been sometimes denom- 
inated a participle ; and, so far as this name may aid in teaching the 
use and force of this form, by any resemblance which it may have to 
independent or incorporated participial clauses in English, Latin, and 
Greek, it may be allowed and continued. But so far as the name par- 
ticiple is used to imply Ou partaking of the nature of a noun or of an 
adjective, it is not required in the Isizulu. The Zulu infinitive, or ver- 
bal substantive, ta^kes the place of the participial noun in English ; 
while the verbal adjective of the latter is properly included in the ac- 
cessory clause of the former. Besides which, it may be remarked that 
it accords strictly with the genius of this language, which, like most 
other uncultivated languages, is exceedingly barren of connective and 
inferential particles, but prolific in short and separate sentences, to 
consider and read many of these so-called particijDial forms in the Zulu 
language, as distinct, independent affirmations, having all the qualities 
of a verb, but none of a noun or of an adjective, or at least none of the 
former, and no more of the latter than some other forms of the verb ; 
thus, the sentence si ya ku hamba, abanye be si siza, we shall go, oth- 
ers helping us, or because others help us, — may be read, as it is in Zulu, 
we shall go ; others help us. So, 7igi bona umuntu e hamba>i I see a 
person walking, — may be read and understood as two independent ab- 
solute assertions, I see a person ; he walks. 

Rem. 2. — The different positive and negative forms of this, and of 
the other modes, will be noticed in connection with the several tenses. 

§ 222. III. 1. a. The Potential mode is formed by means 
of the auxiliary nga, which generally follows the pronoun 
nominative, (see § 211.) ; thus, 

Ngi nga tanda, I may or can love. 



NUMBER OF MODES. Ill 

J). Tlie pronoun u, third person singular, first class, changes 
to a in this mode ; thus, 
A nga tanda, he may love. 

c. In the direct negative form of the present, and in those 
past tenses which are formed from the present, a in nga, and 
a final in the verb are changed to e; thus, 

Si nge tande, we may not love ; ku nge bonive, it can not be seen. 

2. This mode is used to express probability, possibility^, liberty, 
and contingency, or • power dependent upon circumstances ; 
and sometimes obligation. The auxiliary ngd corresponds 
generally to tlie English auxiliary mai/ more strictly than to 
ccm / though it is often rendered indiscriminately by either 
may or can, might or could / thus, 

Ngi nga tanda, I may love ; si he si nga tanda, we might or could 
love ; ngi nga ngi tanda, I should love. 

Rem. 1. — The line of distinction between the potential and optative 
modes is not always clear : both the form and import of some expres- 
sions would give them a place in either class, with nearly equal pro- 
priety : thus, the last example, ngi nga i^gi tanda, might be regarded 
as the full form of the optative nga ngi tanda. The difficulty, how- 
ever, is neither incapable of a philosophical explanation, nor peculiar 
to the Zulu language ; though the discussion of it belongs rather to 
philosophical and general grammar. (See § 211., 1., h.) 

Rem. 2. — When the idea of mere imiL^er is to be expressed 
and made prominent, the noun amandlila is generally used, 
with the infinitive (verbal noun'^ in the genitive ; thus, ngi 
namandhla okutanda, I can love — I have power to love. 

Rem. 3. — When an imaginary assertion, contradicting reality, is to be 
made, or a conditional future to be expressed, without particular refer- 
ence to time, whether present, past, or future, as, " I should love him 
if he would give me food ;" " the cow would have run away if we had 
not watched her." — a contingent, inceptive, or predictive form of the 
indicative mode is often used. (For examples see § 246.) 

§ 223. lY. 1. a. The Optative mode is formed by means 
of the auxiliary nga before the pronoun nominative, or else by 
means of a reduplicate use of this auxiliary and the 23ronoun 
nominative, either with or without other auxiliaries (see § 211., 
2.); thus, 

Nga ngi tanda. may I love ; ngi nga ngi nga tanda, I wish I might 
love ; se ka nga ti ngi nga tanda, oh that I may love. 

h. The pronoun u, third person singular, first class, before 

the second 7iga, changes to a, and sometimes drops out ; thus, 

U nga a nga tanda, or u nga nga tanda, may he love. 

c. In some forms of the negative, the a in 7iga, and a final 
in the verb, change to e, as in the potential ; thus, 

Ngi nga ngi nge tande, may I not love, or I wish I might not love. 
(See §222., Rem. 1.) 



112 NUMBER OF MODES. 

2. This mode is used to express a desire, wish, or a longing 
that something may be, or be done ; or a regret that it has not 
been, or been done ; and sometimes an obh'gation, or a mild 
command to do or be something ; thus, 

Nga si tanda, may we love, or we would or should, or we ought to 
love : se ku nga ti si nga tanda, contracted, se nga ti si nga tanda, oh 
that we may love, let us love, or we ought to love. 

§ 224. Y. 1. a. The Iwipej^ative mode, in regular verbs, 
second person singular, is the same as the root ; thus, tanda, 
love (thou) ; hamha, go (thou). 

h. The second person plural, imperative, is formed by suf- 
fixing the pronoun m, to the root ;'^ thus, tandani, love ye ; 
hatnbani, go ye. 

Rem. 1. — This suffix, ni, carries the accent forward from the penult 
to the final syllable of the verb ; thus, tandani ; hambani. 

Rem. 2. — An accusative before the verb changes the final a of that 
verb to e ; thus, ngi size, help (thou) me ; ba fundiseni, teach ye them. 

c. The formation of the imperative for the first and third 
persons, is marked by the use of the imperative auxiliary ma, 
and changing the final vowel of the verb a to e ; thus, ma ngi 
tande, let me love ; ma ha tandc, let them love. (See § 212., 
Eem. 1.) 

Rem. 1. — Sometimes the second person forms the imperative in the 
same manner, by the use of ma ; thus, ma u tande, love thou ; ma ni 
tande, love ye. 

Rem. 2. — This form of the imperative, using ma for the second per- 
son, is generally used in the negative ; thus, ma u nga tandi, love thou 
not ; ma ni nga tandi, love ye not. 

Rem. 3— Sometimes the m in 7na is dropped, especially with the aux- 
iliary ka or ke; thus, a ke ni bone lowaya 'mzimba, just see that body 
yonder. Sometimes the auxiliary 7na is quite superseded by the use of 
ka ; thus, abantu ka b' esuke bonke, let all the people remove ; ka no ba 
yekani, let ye them alone. 

Rem. 4. — The pronoun ii, third person singular, first class, is gener- 
ally changed to a and hardened by k ; thus, ma ka tande, let him love. 
So the pronoun a, third person plural, second class, is generally hard- 
ened by k ; thus, (amadoda) ma ka hambe, let them (the men) go. 
(See §35., 1., 2.) 

d. (1.) Irregular vowel verbs form the imperative for the 
second person, singular and plural, by prefixing the euphonic 
y to the root of the verb, sufiixing also ni for the plural ; thus, 
yaJca, bnild (thou) ; yahani, build ye ; yenza, do* (thou) ; yo- 
sa/iii, roast ye. 

(2.) Irregular monosyllabic verbs form the imperative, second 
person, singular and j^lural, by prefixing yi to the root, for eu- 

* So in Yao ; thus, tawa, bind (thou); tawani, bind ye. In Kimbundu 
we also find the simple root used for the singular, and the pronoun enu, 
ye, suffixed to form the plural ; as banga, make, bangenu, make ye. 



NUMBER OF MODES. 113 

phony and emphasis, and by suffixing also ni for the phiral ; 
thus, 

Yika, pluck thou : yikani, pluck ye ; yiza, come thou ; yizani, come 
ye : yipa or pana, grant thou. 

Rem. 1. — When an accusative pronoun precedes an irregular verb, 
the euphonic y or yi, being unnecessary, is not used ; thus, s' ose, toast 
it. iisiiikwa) ; s' akeni, build ye it, (isibaya) ; ng' enzele umuti, make me 
some medicine ; ngi pe, grant thou me. 

Rem. 2.— These irregular verbs may form the imperative, in both the 
second and other persons, by means of the imperative auxiliary 7na, 
making such vowel changes as the laws of eupli<>ny require ; thus, ma 
ng' enze, let me do ; ma wake {=ma u ake), build thou ; ma si pe, let us 
give. 

e. (1.) Monosyllabic verbs may form the imperative, second 
person, singular and plural, by means of the prefix wo, suffix- 
ing ?u* for the plural; thus, looza, come thou; loozani, come 

(2.) These verbs may also form the imperative by means of 
the suffix na for the second person singular ; and the suffix 
nini for the second person plural ; thus, inana, stand thou ; 
mmiin% stand ye. 

Rem. 1.— The pronoun ni, making nini, may be reduplicated for em- 
phasis, if not also for euphony, in other forms of the imperative ; thus, 
ivozanini, come ye indeed ; hambanini, go ye indeed, or go yourselves. 

Rem. 2. — The verbs ti, tyo, and azi, retain i and o final in 
forming the imperative with ma/ thus, ma si ti, let us sig- 
nify ; ma ni tyo, speak ye ; 77ia s' azi, let us know. 

2. The imperative mode is used, as in other languages, to 
command, exhort, entreat, permit ; as in the examples already 
given. 

Rem. 1.— The abbreviated form of the indicative future, in ~o, may 
be used imperatively ; thus, ngo tanda, I will love, or let me love ; no 
hamba, ye shall go, or go ye. 

Rem. 2. — The optative mode, in some of its forms, has also much of 
the force of the imperative, and is sometimes used as such when the 
speaker would soften his command ; thus, 7iga si tanda, may we love, 
or let us love. 

§ 225. YI. The Suhjif^nctive mode is of two kinds, — the con- 
ditional, and the telie or potential. 

1. The conditional subjunctive, which is used to express a 
condition or supposition, as its name denotes, is formed from 
the indicative by prefacing its several forms with the conjunc- 
tion icma, if, and sometimes rikuma, or lokiiba ; thus, icma u 
funda, if you learn ; ukitba ngi tandile, if I have loved. 

Rem.— In this kind of subjunctive, the pronoun u, third person singu- 
lar, first class, usually changes to e, but sometimes to a ; and the pro- 
noun ba, sometimes to be ; thus, tuna e tanda, if he love ; uma be nga 
kafiki, if they have not yet arrived. 



114 THE TENSES. 

2. When an intention, end, or object is denoted, — which is 
the case where there are two verbs in succession, the action of 
the first of which is done to give the power or opportunity for 
the performance of the second, — the second verb, constituting 
the telic subjunctive, and used generally in tlie present tense, 
with or without a conjunction, changes the final vowel a to e, 
in the afiirmative, (and to /, in the negative,) the pronoun ii^ 
third person singular, first class, changing to a ; thus, si ya 
hamha iikuhi si hoiie^ we go that we may see. 

Rem. 1. — Verbs whose final vowel is i or o retain the same un- 
changed : as, se ni fundisiwe ukiiba n' azi, ye have been taught that ye 
may know. 

Eem. 2. — Sometimes the conjunction uma, or ukuba, is omitted ; 
thus, vusa lo 'mfana a si zwe, rouse that boy (that) he may listen to us. 

Eem. 8. — Sometimes, especially in interrogative sentences, the ante- 
cedent verb is omitted, as well as the conjunction ; thus, ngi hamhe ? 
or ngi hambe na 9 (do you say that) I may go ? 

Rem. 4. — This form of the verb, the telic, (inflected in e,) is but a 
modified subjunctive. With uma or ukuba expressed or understood, 
denoting intention, end, etc., it has more or less of the character of the 
potential, like corresponding examples in the English, such as, '"I eat 
that I may live." With the conjunction funa, lest, it has the same 
character— the potential. With ngapana, of necessity, must, ought, 
etc.. the verb partakes of the optative or obligatory character, and is 
not confined to the present tense. 

Rem. 5. — The explanatory or accessory form of the indicative mode 
is often used as the conditional subjunctive, without the conjunction 
uma or ukuba; thus, ngi ti, e nga yi biilakmga (inyoka), e be nga yi ku 
hamba, I say, had he not. i. e., if he had not killed it (the snake), he 
could not have walked (lived) ; a si yi ku sindiswa, si nga penduki, we 
shall not be saved, (if) we do not repent. 

B.— ON THE TENSES. 

A. General Remarks. 

§ 226. 1. Few languages are so remarkable as the Zulu, and 
some of its" cognates, for its power to make numerous divi- 
sions, and to express minute shades of difference, in respect to 
the time and state or condition of the action or being, which 
its verbs denote. 

2. a. The tenses of the Zulu verb are expressed partly by means of 
inflection, partly by auxiliary verbs or particles, and partly by the use 
of both of these means combined. 

b. The number of genuine inflections, to which the verb is subject, is 
small, amounting to no more than two or three ; nor is the number of 
its auxiliaries remarkably large. But the capacity of the language to 
form various and extensive combinations of distinct relational verbs, 
for the expression of the different tenses and shades of time, is great 
beyond comparison with any other language with which we are ac- 
quainted. 

§ 227. 1. a. Most of the auxiliary verbs, as before remarked 
(§ 207., Kem. 1.), are still used, ofteutimes, separately, as prin- 
cipal verbs ; and a part of this rank and character of a principal 



GENERAL REMARKS. 115 

verb, some of the auxiliaries still retain and exhibit, even in 
their combination with purel}^ essential verbs to express the 
time or state of the action or being signified by these verbs. 
This is seen in their often taking a pronoun nominative of 
their own, even when used as auxiliaries, — a pronoun in addi- 
tion to that with which tlie principal verb is more immediately 
connected ; thus. 

In the progressive form of the past tense we have — ngi be ngi tanda, 
literally, I was I love, that is, I was loving. So in the past perfect — 
pluperfect,— we have two perfects ; thus, ngi be ngi tandile, literally, 
I was I have loved, that is, I had loved. 

b. So in the future tense, as, ngi ya ku tanda, I shall love, literally, 
I go to love. — what is called the principal verb might be considered as 
the latter of two verbs, used in the infinitive, and dependent upon ya, 
which, in that view, would pass for a principal verb also. But it is 
doubtless better to regard the former verb, ya or za. in this tense, 
merely as an auxiliar}^ to the latter, which has laid aside a portion of 
its sign of the infinitive, {u being elided from uku,) in order to facilitate 
enunciation, and also in order to denote, as it were, the intimacy of the 
relation which exists between these two verbs as mutual elements of 
the tense formed by their combination. 

c. In like manner, in the case of the verb be. as in ngi be ngi tandile, 
and in all similar instances, whoe the office of one verb is to aid in de- 
noting the time, state, or mode of another, it is doubtless best to regard 
such antecedent verb as relational, or auxiliary to the verb by which it 
is succeeded. 

2. a. By looking at the auxiliaries in this light, and getting 
a distinct idea of their separate, respective value and office, we 
shall be the better able to apprehend the import of the many 
different combinations, which are used in the Zulu language, 
for expressing the time, state, or manner of the verbal action 
or being; though it may be difficult to express all their differ- 
ent nice shades of meaning in our tongue. 

6. In attempting to give an analysis and definition of the verb, in 
most of its numerous forms and significations of forms, an approxima- 
tion to completeness and accuracy, is all that can be expected, at least 
in the present state of Zulu literature and philology. And while it is 
believed that the terms chosen to designate the different forms and 
uses of the verb, are among the best that can be had, it is not claimed 
that they are all as definite and appropriate as could be desired. A 
perfect knowledge of the force of the verb, in all its forms and combi- 
nations, *can be gained only from a careful study of its use, 

3. It has been well observed by an able writer on general 
grammar, that, where the divisions of time are very minute 
and complex, the expression of these divisions makes rather a 
j)hrase or a sentence, than a single word. 

The long, complex expression is more than the mind can easily grasp 
or communicate in the combined form of one word ; and hence, to be 
readily understood, as well as to be most properly and easily uttered, 
the combination requires to be written in the analytic form, the several 
relational words, which make up the compound tense, having each a 
separate position of its own, except where two or more are united by 
some euphonic change or contraction. (See Part I., Chapter II.) 



116 NUMBER OF TENSES. 

B. The Number of Tenses. 

§ 228. 1. Zulu verbs may be said to have six tenses ; namely, 
three primary, — the Present, the Past, and the Pttture ; and 
three secondary, — the Present Perfect, the Past Perfect, and 
the Future Perfect. 

2. a. In each of these tenses, especially in the indicative and 
potential modes, there are several different forms, and some- 
times several "uarieties of form, used to denote various nice, 
subordinate distinctions, in respect to the time, state, or condi- 
tion of the action or being expressed by the verb. 

h. These varied nicer forms may be denominated, — Simple, 
Emphatic, Continuate, Definite, Indefinite, Correlative, Incep- 
tive, and Progressive. 

Bem. — No attempt will be made to give every possible form and va- 
riety, of tim.e, mode, condition, or state, of v^hicli the Zulu verb, with 
all its auxiliaries, numerous contractions, and power of varied arrange- 
ment, is cajoable. Such a mere displaj^^ of every possible verbal form, 
written out in full, with every class, number, and person of the pro- 
nouns, would doubtless be of less service, than a good number of more 
common, well-selected specimens, under the principal divisions, with 
such an exhibition of the principles, and of the manner in which the 
different modes and tenses are formed, as will show what must be the 
proper form and value of those which are omitted. 

§ 229. 1. Among so many different forms and varieties of 
form, the meaning of one, as might be expected, will some- 
times nearly or quite coincide with that of another ; so that 
one may sometimes seem to be used for another, in some cases, 
without affecting the general sense of the proposition. 

2. Yet upon a closer examination, it will seldom be found 
that one form of the verb agrees exactly with any other, in its 
use and import, unless one is a contracted form of the other, 
and not always even then ; thus. 

The full form of the future, ngi ya kii tanda, simply foretells, =1 
shall love ; but the contracted form, ngo tanda. has an imperative 
force, to which the brevity of its form is well suited, =1 will love, or let 
me love. 

Rem. — As a general thing, then, there are nice, and often very im- 
portant, shades of difference, in meaning, among all the different forms 
and varieties of mode and tense, in which this language is so wonder- 
fully prolific. And it is only by a careful study and ready command 
of these differences, in both form and import, that the great beauty, 
flexibility, and force of the Zulu verb, can be known, and made most 
serviceable. The great power of the language lies in the verb. 

§ 230. 1. The foregoing paragraphs, and other remarks upon 
the verb, refer chiefly to its affirmative forms and use. But, 
throughout all its modes and tenses, most of its affirmative 
forms have corresponding negative forms. Sometimes one 
affirmative form has two negative forms ; and in a few in- 
stances, one negative form answers to two aflirmative forms. 



TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 117 

2. The negative forms are marked, partly, by the use of the 
negative particles a, or nga (the vowel a hardened by ng)^ and 
partly, by means of inflections in the verb. 

Rem. 1.— These two negative particles (a and nga) are primarily one, 
a : but when the position of a is such, in relation to another vowel, 
that a hiatus would be produced, or the negative a would be lost by 
coalescence, or otherwise, in tlie flow of speech, it takes before it 
the euphonic ng, which prevents a hiatus and preserves the vowel. 
Thus, when the negative particle commences a phrase, it requires no 
euphonic ; as.-a si tancU, we do not love ; but when it follows another 
word to which it is closely related, two vowels are brought into a posi- 
tion which calls for the euphonic ng, to preserve the negative and give 
it prominence ; thus, si {vg) a tancli =si nga tandi, we not loving, or, if 
we love not. When the negative a follows the principal verb, in which 
case it takes the euphonic ng, =nga, the accent is carried forward from 
the penult to the final syllable of the verb ; and hence the negative nga 
is sufiixed ; thus, a ngi tanda{ug)a =a ngi tandanga. I did not love. 

Rem. 2.— Sometimes the negative is hardened by fc; as, ahafana ka 
ha fundi esikoleni kupela, boys do not iearn in school only. 

c. Tenses of the set^eral Modes. 
A. Tenses of the Indicative Mode. 

§ 231. The Indicative mode contains all the Tenses ; namely, 
the P/'ese?U, the I^ast, the Future^ the Present Perfect^ the 
Past PerfecU and the P\iture Perfect. 

§ 232 I. The Present tense denotes present time. Of this 
there are six forms / — the Simple, the Emphatic, the Contin- 
nate, the Definite, the Indefinite, and the Correlative. 

>$ 233. i. 1 . a. The Siynjile form of the present, affirmative, 
consists of the mere root of the verb with its pronoun nomin- 
ative; thus, 

2^gi tanda, I love, or I am loving ; or, in its explanatory or parti- 
cipial, accessory use, — I loving. 

h. The negative, direct, is formed by the use of the negative 
particle a before the prononn nominative, and changing the 
final vowel of the verb a into i ; thus, 

A ngi tandi, I do not love. 

The negative indirect, the accessory negative, is formed by the use of 
the negative particle nga after the pronoun nominative, and changing 
the final vowel a, as before, into i; thus, ngi nga tandi, if I love not, 
or I not loving. 

2. a. This form of the present is used less frequently than 
tlie emphatic. Its general characteristic seems to be to affirm 
or deny action or being, without limiting the same with exact- 
ness to a given point. Hence, it is generally employed in con- 
nection with interrogative pronouns and adverbs, and often 
with the relative or ^/-form of the verb ; as, 

U funani na 9 you want what ? ba hambapi na f they are going 
where ? 



118 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 

h. This simple form, and its indirect negative, (and the con- 
tinuate sometimes, but the emphatic never, with propriety,) 
is used with the relative pronoun and in all accessory clauses, 
where it often takes the suffix yo ^ thus, 

Umuntu o tanda, or o tandayo, the person who loves ; umuniu o nga 
tandi, or o nga tandiyo, the person who does not love ; si ya Tcu hamba, 
e vuma ubaba, we shall go, father assenting ; ba sa sina, si nga vumiyo, 
they still dance, we not approving. 

c. The simple form of the |)resent is used also to express 
facts which exist generally, at all times ; customary actions, 
general truths, habits, etc., which have no reference to an}" 
specific time ; and, sometimes, to describe past actions, in 
order to give animation to discourse ; as. 

Tin' abamnyama si tanda izmkomo, we black people are fond of cat- 
tle ; kii linywa abafazi, the digging is done by the women. 

§ 234. ii. 1. a. The Emphatic form of the present, affirma- 
tive, is marked by the use of tlie auxiliary ya / thus, 

Ngi ya tanda (doubtless, originally, ngi ya ngi tanda), I do love, or I 
am loving, — literally, I go love, or I go I love, or loving. 

h. The negatives of this are the same as in the simple form ; 
thus, 

A 7igi tandi, I do not love ; ngi nga tandi, I not loving. 

2. This form of the present, and its direct -negative (as a ngi 
tandi), denotes emphasis ; and is generally used in all direct, 
decided assertions which refer with precision to the present 
time ; as. 

Si ya tanda, we do love ; ngi ya bona, I do see. 

§ 235. iii. 1. a. The Coyitimiate form of the present, affirm- 
ative, is marked by the use of the auxiliary sa after the pro- 
noun nominative ; thus, 

Ngi sa tanda, I still love, or I yet love, or I am still loving. 

h. To this, as to the simple form, there are two forms of the 
negative : — the one, direct ; thus, 

A ngi sa tandi, I do not still love :— and the other, indirect, explana- 
tory ; thus, 7igi nga sa tandi, (if) I do not still love, or I not still loving. 

2. This form denotes action or being continued from the 
past to the present, and still existing ; though it sometimes im- 
plies a doubt, or the supposition of a doubt, as to its continua- 
tion in the future ; or rather, it is often used to certify con- 
tinued action or being, when circumstances give a doubt as to 
its permanence. It occurs often in accessory clauses ; and may 
be rendered frequently by, while, when, since, because / as. 

Ngi nge hambe, ngi sa gula, I can not go, being still sick, or while, 
since, or because I am sicls^. 



TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 119 

Rem. 1. — AVhen the predicate or attributive is a noun, adjective, or 
adverb, without a verbal copula, se is used instead of sa ; thus, ngi se 
mnandi, I (am) still well, still in good health ; si se kona, we (are) still 
present ; ha se sekcu/a, they (are) still at hoiLie ; a ha se ko, or ha nga se 
ko, they (are) not still present, or they (being) no longer present. 

Rem. 2. — We sometimes meet with a kind of reduplication, a com- 
pound of this form, especially in the negative ; thus, direct, a ku sa hi 
ku sa ha ko Into, contracted, a ku sa hi sa ha ko 'Juto. there is no lon- 
ger anv thing still present : indirect, ku nga sa hi {ku) sa ha ko 'luto. 
(See §250., 1., Rem. 2.: §254., 1., c.) 

Rem. 3. — AVe sometimes meet with what might be called a progres- 
sive and continuate combination, especially in the negative, indirect ; 
and sometimes have e instead of i final, in the verb of negation (=he 
for hi) : thus, ngi nga he ngi sa tanda : that (or and) I am not still lov- 
ing ; u ya huhisa umpefumlo icake, a nga he e sa ha naye umsindisi ezul- 
wini, a nga he e sa ha naye 'ndao, he destroys his soul, and has no lon- 
ger a Saviour in heaven, nor any where else. 

§ 236. iv. 1. a. The Definite form of tlie present, affirma- 
tive, is marked by the use of se (present perfect of sa)^ before 
the pronomi nominative — the pronominal subject of the verb ; 
thus, 

Se ngi tanda, — full form, ngi se ngi tanda, — just now, already I love ; 
se ngi ya tanda, already do I love, already am I loving. 

h. There are two varieties of negative for this form. Tlie 
first is marked bj the use of the negative nga after the pro- 
noun nominative, and the changing of the final vowel of tlie 
verb a to i ; thus, 
Se ngi nga tandi, already I do not love. 

The second variety of negative is marked by the use of the negative 
a or nga, and the use of the auxiliary ka before the principal verb ; 
thus, direct, a ngi ka tandi, I do not yet love ; indirect, ngi nga ka 
tandi, I not yet loving, before I love, or previous to my loving. 

2. a. In the affirmative, this form denotes action or being 
already clearly and decidedly commenced and likely to con- 
tinue, implying also a previous absence of such action or being. 

h. In the negative, it denotes that a state of action or being 
is not already, not yet or quite, at this moment, realized ; gen- 
erally implying, however, that it may be expected to be real- 
ized soon. Hence it is used where, in English, we find a 
secondary clause introduced by the words hefore^ or previoxis 
to; thus, 

Si ya ku haniha ni nga ka vuki, we shall go before you are up. 

§ 237. V. 1. a. The Lidefinite^ diminutive, or occasional 
form, affirmative, is marked by the use of Jce before the pro- 
nominal subject, with or without a duplicate use of the pro- 
noun, before Tie ; and by a change of the final vowel of the 
verb a to e ; thus, 

Ke ngi tande, or ngi ke ngi tande, I sometimes love, or, I love occa- 
sionally. 



120 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 

h. There are two varieties of the negative ; thus, 

The direct, a ngi ke ngi tande, I do not sometimes love, or, rather, I 
do not love at any time, or I never love ; — and the indirect, ke ngi nga 
tandi, or ngi ke ngi nga tandi, I not loving at any time. 

2. a. This form of the present is nsed to denote some in- 
definite point or period of time, without specifying any in 
particular. To give it a good translation into Englisli is not 
always easy. In the ]3ast, we may render it by once, on a 
thne, as, I once loved ; and in the future, by sometime, as, I 
shall love cometime, — in familiar styl6, 1 shall love sometime or 
other. So in the present potential, in English, we say, I may 
love sometime, I may love sometime or other. And such is the 
general force of l^e in the present indicative, in Zulu ; and the 
phrase, ngi he ngi tande, may be rendered, — at some one time 
or another I love, or on some occasions I love. 

J}. The interrogative and negative forms of this variety are 
much more easily and definitely rendered by ever and never • 
thus, 

Ni ke ni tande na ? or ke ni tande na 9 do you ever love ? a si ke si 
tande, we never love. 

c. This form of the verb has. in some cases, something of a diminu- 
tive signification, which is easily derived from the character of its aux- 
iliary in denoting some indefinite, uncertain point or sphere of time ; 
since, from the idea that one loves, walks, or works only on some par- 
ticular occasion, it is easily inferred that he does not love, walk, or 
work much. 

§ 238. vi. 1. a. The Correlative, complemental, or conjunc- 
tive form is marked by the use of the auxiliary sa and its pro- 
noun before the pronominal subject of the principal verb ; thus, 

Ngi za ngi tanda, until I see, literally, I come I see. 

The auxiliary za takes before it, generally, the same pronoun which 
is nominative direct to the principal verb ; though the general in- 
definite pronoun kii is sometimes used instead ; thus, si za sifika, or ku 
za sifika, until we arrive. 

The infiected form, the final a being changed, in the aux- 
iliary, to e, and in the princij^al verb, to He or e, is generally 
used, either as the present perfect tense instead of the present, 
or else as denoting the close succession and connection of this 
verb (the correlative form) to its antecedent ; thus, 

Ngi ya ku hamba ngi ze ngifike, I will walk until I have arrived, lit- 
erally, I will walk and come and arrive ; ma si sebenze si ze s' akile 
uimizi, let us work till we have built the kraal. 

h. The negative is marked by the use of the negative par- 
ticle nga after tlae direct pronominal subject, and by changing 
the final a of the verb into i / thus, 
Ngi za ngi nga tandi, or ku ze ngi nga tandi, until I do not love. 



TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 121 

2. a. As already intimated, and shown in the foregoing ex- 
amples, this form of the verb is used as the complement oi- 
a correlative to some other verb which goes before; or it de- 
notes a conseqnent and limit to some antecedent action or state, 
either expressed or implied ; tlm^, 

Lindani lapa ni ze ni m hone, wait here till ye see him, or in order 
that ye may see him ; na ke na ku zwa nkugula ukuha ni ze ni puze 
umuii na ? did you ever feel sick so as to take medicine. 

h. This form might, perhaps, be regarded as consisting of two princi- 
pal verbs ; yet. on the whole, the former, za, is thought to rank most 
properly, in this situation, as an auxiliary or relational verb, the force 
of which, according to its connection, may be expressed in English by 
a conjunction, preposition, or adverb, as and, then, till, or until, or by 
the subjunctive mode with the conjunction that. - 

§ 235). II. The Past tense (" imperfect ") represents an ac- 
tion or state as going on at some j) cist time. Of this there are 
seven forms ; namely, the Simple, the Progressive, the Contin- 
nate, the Delinite, the Diminntive, the Correlative, and the 
Inceptive. 

Rem. 1. — Under most of these forms there may be found several dif- 
ferent varieties, as tiie following paragraphs will show. 

Rem. 2. — In some cases, tlie characteristic portions of two different 
forms may be combined in one, so as to constitute a kind of com- 
pound, form. This is particularly true in some of the negatives of what 
are called the progressive and the inceptive forms : thus, a ngi banga 
ngi so bona, I have never since seen, literally, I have not been still 
seeing. 

^ 240. i. 1. a. The Simijle form of the past, affirmative, is 
marked by the nse of a in the pronominal subject, with the 
sim2)le root of the verb ; thus, nga tanda^ I loved. 

Rem. 1. — The characteristic of this tense — a in the pronoun— is prob- 
ably derived from a contraction of the pronoun, [ngi, si, etc.,) and of 
the auxiliary ya of the present (see § .249., 1., Rem.) ; thus, ngi ya =nga : 
si ya =sa ; u ya —tea ; ku ya kiua ; ba ya =:ba ; i ya =ya. (See § 16.) 

Rem. 2. — The final vowel of the verb a is sometimes changed to e in 
this tense, especially in the idiomatic or expletive use of buya. fika, bo- 
nanga, zanga, etc.: thus, kwa buye kica linywa, they planted again ; a 
sibonavge siya yto?ia. we never went there; angizange ngi kulume 
ngi pike, I never spoke nor contradicted. But this use is not common, 
though sometimes heard from good speakers. Neither is it to be en- 
couraged bv imitation : — better, kwa buya. — a si bonanga, — a ngi zanga, 
etc. (See §244., l.,b.) 

}). The negative, first variety, is marked by the nse of the 
negative particle a before the prononn nominative ; thns, a 
nga tanda, I did not love. 

A second variety of negative is formed from the simple 

affirmative, present, by suffixing the negative nga to the verb, 

and using the negative « before the pronoun nominative, for 

the direct, and by using the negative 7iga after the pronoun, 

for the indirect ; thus, 

A ngi tandanga, I did not love ; ngi nga tandanga, (that) I did not 
love, or, I not loving. 



122 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 

Eem. 1.— The pronoun a, third person plural, second class, and wa, 
second person singular, are sometimes hardened by k ; thus, amadoda 
a ka hamba, the men did not go ; a wa tanda, or a kwa tanda, tliou 
didst not love. The pronoun u, third person singular, is changed to a, 
and hardened by k ; thus, a ka ta^ida, he did not love. In the second 
variety, the pronoun u, second person singular, is sometimes hardened 
by k or w ; thus, a ku tandaiiga or a ivu tandanga, thou didst not love ; 
so i is sometimes hardened by y ; thus, a yi tandanga. (See § 16.) 

Rem. 2. — The irregular verbs, ^lh^l ti and iikwazi^ cliange i 
to a, ill suffixing the negative nga / and uhu tyo changes a of 
the suffix negative into o / thus, a ngi tanga, 1 did not mean ; 
a ng^ azanga^ I did not know ; a ngi tyongo^ I did not say. 

2. a. The simple form of the past is used to represent an 

action as taking place at some undefined, completely past time,; 

as, 

Nga bona umuntu, I saw a person ; sa funa u^nsebenzi, we sought 
work. 

h. The indefinite character of the past tense renders it par- 
ticularly appropriate in the narration of past events ; and 
hence it might be called the historic tense ; thus, 

Sa puma lapa, sa lala Emngeni, sa vuka kona, sa fika Embilo, sa 
linda abanye ; we left this place, slept at the Umngeni, rose there, 
reached the Umbilo, waited for others. 

c. This tense is also used idiomatically, in cases of impend- 
ing danger or difficulty ; thus, 

Wa fa ! wa fa ! you are dead ! dead ! i. e. , you are in danger of being 
killed, — as one said to another, over whom a wagon was about to pass ; 
ye¥ izembe. wa zilimaza, let the hatchet alone, you wounded yourself, 
I. e. , lest you wound yourself : sukani, na fa I na fa ! na wela emgo- 
dini! get away, lest you die, die, lest you fall into a pit. 

§ 241. ii. 1. a. The Progressive form of the past, affirma- 
tive, first variety, is marked by the use of the auxiliary ha^ and 
its pronoun in the past or -a form, before the simple form of 
the present ; thus, 

Nga ba ngitanda, contracted, nga ngi tanda, I was loving, literally, 
I was I love, or I was I loving. 

The second variety is marked by the use of he^ the inflected 
form of ha, and its pronoun, before the simple form of the 
present ; thus, 

Ngi be ngi tanda, contracted, be ngi tanda, I was loving, literally, I 
was I love or loving. 

The third variety is marked by the auxiliary he, with its pi'o- 
noun in the past or -a form, before the simple present; thus, 

Nga be ngi tanda, contracted, nga ngi tanda, I was loving, I used to 
love, or I was accustomed to love. 

Rem. 1. — The pronoun n. third person singular, before the principal 
verb, in these forms, usually changes to e ; ba, third person plural, to 
be; and a to e; thus, wa be e tanda, he was loving; ba be be tanda, 
they were loving. 



TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 123 

Rem. 2.— Contractions often occur between some of the pronouns and 
auxiliaries in these foi'ms ; as, ' u bu tanda,' from ' u be u tanda,' thou 
wast loving ; ' wa be tanda,' from ' wa be e tanda,' he was loving ; ' i 
bi tanda,' from ' i be i tanda,' it was loving. 

h. The negative, first variety, of these forms, is marked by 
the use of the negative particle nga before the principal verb, 
the final a of the verb changing to i^ — the indirect negative of 
the simple present, with the auxiliaries of the past ; thus, 

• Nga ba ngi nga tandi,' contracted, ' nga ngi nga tandi,' I was not 
loving ; ' si be si nga tandi,' contracted,' ' be si nga tandi,' we were not 
loving ; ' sa be si nga tandi,' contracted, ' sa si nga tandi,' we were not 
loying, or accustomed to love. 

A second variety of the negative puts the negative particles with the 
auxiliaries ; thus, ' a ngi banga ngi tanda ;' ' ngi nga banga ngi tanda ;' 
• a nga be ngi tanda.' 

Rem. — This second variety of the negative seldom occurs, except in a 
combination of the progressive and continuate forms : thus, direct, 'a 
ngi banga ngi sa tanda,' I never loved again ;— indirect, ' ngi nga banga 
ngi sa tanda,' (that) I never loved again. 

2. These various progressive forms represent the state of 
action or being as unfinished at a certain specified time past ; 
or they represent that state as present and continuing in some 
indefinite period of past time. See theforegoing examples. 

Rem. — According to formation, the second variety of negative be- 
longs, as above, to the progressive form ; but according to its import, it 
belongs rather under the fifth, the indefinite form. (See § 244., 1., h.) 

§ 242. iii. 1. a. The Continuate form of the past, afiirma- 
tive, is marked by the use of the auxiliary sa after the pronoun 
of the simple form ; thus, nga sa tanda^ I still loved. 

A second variety of this form, or rather a combination of 
this and the progressive form, is marked by the use of sa after 
the direct pronominal subject in the several progressive forms 
of the past (§ 141., 1.); thus, 

' Nga be ngi sa tanda ;' ' ngi be ngi sa tanda,' contracted, ' be ngi sa 
tanda,' or ' nga be sa tanda,' or ' ngi be sa tanda,' — I was still loving. 

h. The negative of this form, first variety, is marked by the 
use of the negative a before the afiirmative form ; thus, 

' A nga sa tanda.' I did not still love. 

The negatives of the second variety are the same as in the several 
negative varieties of the progressive form, with the use of sa before the 
principal verb ; thus, ' nga be ngi nga sa tandi ;' ' ngi be ngi nga sa 
tandi;' 'be ngi nga sa tandi:' 'a ngi banga ngi sa tanda; ' ngi nga 
banga ngi sa tanda ;' ' a nga be ngi sa tanda ;' ' ka nga be ngi nga sa 
tandi.' 

\ 

2. The use and import of this form of the past may be 
easily gathered from remarks upon the continuate form of the 
present tense, together with remarks upon the simple and ^ro- 



124 TEISSES OF THP] INDICATIVE MODE. 

gressive forms of the past tense, and from tlie examples given 
above, without any thing further in this connection. (See 
§§ 235., 24:0., 241.) 

§ 243. iv. 1. The Definite form of the past is marked by 
the use of se^ with or witliout its pronoun, after the auxiliary 
ha or he of the progressive past ; thus, 

!/k.f3Srmative, 'nga be ngi se ngi tanda,' contracted, 'be ngi se ngi 
tanda,' or ' nga be se ngi tanda,' I was evidently loving, or I %yas al- 
ready loving. 

Negative. ' nga be ngi se ngi nga tandi,' I was not evidenth^ loving. 

A second variety of negative for this form is marked by the use of 
the negative nga, with the auxiliary ka and its pronoun, after the aux- 
iliary ha or he of the progressive form, changing the final vowel of the 
verb a to i; thus, * ngi be ngi nga ka tandi,' contracted, ' be ngi nga ka 
tandi,' I was not yet loving. 

2. The import of this form is sufBciently indicated by re- 
marks on the definite present, and progressive past, together 
with the examples above given. (See §§ 236., 241.) 

§ 244. V. 1. «. The Indefinite or occasional form of the 
past, affirmative, is marked by the use of the auxiliary Ay?, or 
he^ with its pronoun in the -ct form, before the simple form of 
the past ; thus, 

' Nga ka nga tanda,' or ' nga ke nga tanda,' I did once love ; ' na ke 
na tanda na? did you ever love V 

h. (1.) The negative is usually marked by the use of the 
auxiliary za in its several negative forms, direct and indirect, 
with the principal verb in the inflected form, a final being 
changed to e ; thus. 

Direct. ' a si zanga si tande,' we never loved ; — indirect, ' si nga zanga 
si tande,' (that) we never loved. 

(2.) Sometimes the auxiliary ha is used instead of za^ espe- 
cially in connection with the continuate form ; as, 

' A ngi banga ngi tanda,' or ' a ngi banga ngi sa tanda.' (See § 241., 
1., 5., also 3., Eem.) 

(3.) Sometimes the auxiliary l!a or 1-^e may be heard in this 
kind of negative ; thus, 

' A sa kanga sa tanda,' once we did not love ;— indirect, ' si nga kanga 
sa tanda ;' or again, ' sa ka si nga tandanga ;' so also, ' sa ke si nga tan- 
danga,' — we never loved. 

(4.) Sometimes a negative of this kind is formed by the use 
of hona, as an auxiliary ; thus, 

' Ya ti a ba bonanga be bona umlungukazi,' he said they never saw a 
white woman ; ' uma ku nga bonanga ku bonwa umuntu le 'mizi,' now 
suppose nobody had ever seen these cities. 

2. The import of this form has been stated, in substance, in 
the remarks upon the indeflnite of the present, and on the sim- 



TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE.' 125 

pie form of the past, and sufficiently illustrated in tlie fore- 
going examples. (See §§ 237., 240.) 

§ 24:0. vi. 1. a. The Correlative form of the past, affirma- 
tive, is marked by the use of the auxiliary za^ or ze^ with its 
pronoun in the -a form, before the simple form of the past : 
thus, 

' Nga za nga tanda," and, then, until, or at last, I loved ; ' sa ze sa 
sondela,' then we drew near. 

Ij. The negative is marked by the use of these same auxil- 
iary fornis before the negatives of the simple, past ; thus, 

Direct, ' sa za a sa tanda," until we did not love ; — indirect, ' sa za si 
nga tandanga,' until we not loving. 

2. The import of this form of the past differs from the cor- 
relative of the present only in point of time. 

3. There is a second variety of the correlative, past, which 
is marked by the use of the auxiliary ye (inilected form of ya) 
with its pronoun in the -a form, before the simple form of the 
present; thus. 

Affirmative, • nga ye ngi tanda,' contracted, ' nga ngi tanda,' and, or 
then I loved, or 1 did love ;— negative, 'nga ye ngi nga tandi,' con- 
tracted, ' nga ngi nga tandi,' and, or then I loved not, or I did not love ; 
' sa ye si nga tandi,' contracted, * sa si nga tandi,' then we did not love. 

4. This second variety of the correlative, like that which is 
marked by the auxiliary sc/, has something of a comple- 
mental force, and may be rendered sometimes by tiU or until. 
Its more proper and usual import, however, is rather that of 
mere secpience, which is best rendered by and^ then^ and fJcen ; 
thus, 

•Sa vuka sa ye si hamba,' or ' sa si hamba,' we rose u^) and went ; 
' sa geza emfuleni sa si buya,' we bathed in the river and then returned. 

§ 246. vii. 1. a. The Inceptive., contingent, or predicative 
form of the past, affirmative, is marked by the use of the aux- 
iliary he with or without its pronoun, before the simple form 
of the future tense (see § 248., 1., a.) ; thus, 

' Ngi be ngi ya ku tanda,' contracted, ' be ngi ya ku tanda,' I was 
about to love, t would or might love or have loved, —literally, I was 
going to love. 

Rem. — Sometimes the pronoun before the auxiliary he takes the -a 
form, the sign of the past ; t?ius, ' naa be ngi ya ku tanda ;' ' sa be si ya 
ku tanda,' contracted, ' sa si ya ku tanda.' 

The negative is marked by the same auxiliary before the in- 
direct negative of the future (see § 248., 1., Ij.) ; thus, 

' Ngi be ngi nga yi ku tanda,' contracted, ' be ngi nga yi ku tanda,' I 
was not about to love, or I would or might not love, or have loved. 



126 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 

h. A second variety of tlie inceptiv-e, past, is marked bj the 
use of the same auxiliary {he or ha) before the simple form of 
the future, second yariety, inceptive (see § 218., 3., 4.); thus, 

AflS.rraative, ' ngi be ngi za ku tancla,' or ' nga be ngi za ku tancla.' 
contracted, 'be ngi za ku tanda.' or 'nga ngi za ku tanda,' — I was 
about to love, or I was coming to love. 

Negative, ' ngi be ngi nge za ku tanda,' ' ngi be ngi nge zi ku tanda,' 
or ' nga be ngi nge zi ku tanda,' contracted, ' be ngi nge z' uku tanda.' 
or ' nga ngi nge z' uku tanda,' — I was not about to love. 

c. A third variety of this form is marked by the use of the 
auxiliary ye with its pronoun in the -a form, before the simple 
form of the future ; thus, 

' Nga ye ngi ya ku tanda,' contracted, ' nga ngi ya ku tanda,' — I was 
going to love, 1 would have loved. 

(L Still another variety of the past inceptive form is derived 
from the use of the continuate future (§ 250.) instead of the 
simple, with the above named introductory auxiliaries, ha, he, 
or ye / thus, 

Aflfirmative, ' nga be ngi sa ya ku tanda,' I was about still to love ; — 
negative, ' nga be ngi nga sa yi ku tanda.' 

2. The several varieties of this form of the past are used to 
express a past readiness or intention to do or be something 
which was then future, had an opportunity been given, or no 
obstacle been interjDOsed. Hence, this form often answers to 
the English potential and subjunctive forms in might, could, 
would, shoidd / and it is often accompanied by another propo- 
sition of a subordinate character, with a verb in the explana- 
tory indicative, or else in the subjunctive mode ; thus, 

' Be ngi nge zi ku tanda, uma nga be ngi za ku hamba ngedwa ; se 
ngi vuma, ngokuba si za ku hamba noniLinye, si hambe si pamuzana 
isizungu ;' I should not be willing, if I were to go alone ; however, I 
consent, because we are to go with another, relieving each other of 
loneliness as we go. 

Rem. 1. — Though both its usual import and the leading auxiliaries of 
this form, nga ye, nga be, ngi he, put it most properly in the past tense, 
yet its general connection, particularly with the subordinate proposi- 
tion, gives it the signification, sometimes of the past perfect, sometimes 
of the present, and sometimes of the future. Thus, the verbs in the 
sentence, — 'uma u bu nga yi bonanga inkomo. i be i ya ku baleka i ye 
ekaya,' are both most properly rendered in the past perfect : thus, if 
you had not seen the cow, she would have run away and gone home : 
while the verbs in the sentence, — ' be ngi za ku hamba ukuba ba fika 
ngi se koiia,' may be rendered in the past or present, according to its 
connection ; and the verbs in the sentence, — ' sa be si za ku hamba uma 
ni za ku hamba,' might be rendered in the future. 

Rem. 2.— The contingent import of this form of the past, embodying 
a certain fact, generally upon some condition, with liberty of reference 
to almost any time, present, past, or future, makes the use of its sev- 
eral varieties very common and important. 



TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 127 

§ 247. III. Tlie Future tense denotes future time ; and of 
tins there are seven forms ; namely, the Simple, the Emphatic, 
the Continnate, the Definite, the Indefinite, the Correlative, 
and the Progressive. Of some of these forms there are sev- 
eral varieties. 

§ 2-IS. i. 1. a. The Si?njjle form of the f utnre, first variety, 
aftirmative, is marked hy the nse of the anxiliary ya with the 
infinitive of the principal verb, the initial t/ of the infinitive 
sign {id'u) being elided ; thus, 

' Ngi ya ku tanda,' I shall love, literally, I go to love. 

h. The negative is formed by changing the final vowel of 
the auxiliary a to /, and using the negative a before the pro- 
noun nominative, for direct negation ; and the negative nr/a 
after the prononn nominative, for indirect or accessory nega- 
tion ; thus, 

' A ngi yi ku tanda,' I shall not love ; ' ngi nga yi ku tanda,' (that) I 
shall not love. 

2. This variety of the future simply predicts, or represents 
an action or state which is yet to come ; as in the above exam- 
ples. 

3. a. A second variety of the simple future, aflfirmative, is 
marked by the nse of the anxiliary za with the contracted in- 
finitive of the principal verb ; thus, 

' Ngi za ku tanda,' I shall love, or I am going to love, or I am about 
to love, literally, I come to love. 

h. The negative, direct, of this variety, is formed by the use 
of the negative a before the pronoun nominative ; thus, 

' A ngi za ku tanda ;'— the indirect, by the use of 7iga after the pro- 
noun nominative, a of nga usually changing to e before the auxiliary 
za; thus, ' ngi nge za ku tanda.' 

Eem. — The a of za, in the negative of this variety, often changes to 
i (=zi), the same as a in ya, first variety, {=yi) ; thus, 'a ngi zi ku 
tanda,' ' ngi nge zi ku tanda ;' or, v^hat is more common, the a (or i), 
in za (zi), may be elided, and the ii restored in the ku {=uku) giving the 
principal verb the full infinitive form : thus. ' a ngi z' uku tanda.' or ' a 
ngi zu ku tanda ;' ' ngi nge z' uku tanda,' or ' ngi nge zu ku tanda.' 

■I. This second variety of the simple future is sometimes 
used in mnch the same manner as the first. It has generally, 
however, more of an inceptive force, denoting the commence- 
ment of an action or state, or an intention to coinmence with- 
out delay ; thus, 

'Ngi za ku hamba,' I am about to go,' literally, I come to go, =1 
shall go at once. 

Rem. — While the true import of this variety, taking the whole phrase 
or form together, gives it a future character, and limits the verb za to 
the rank of an auxiliary, a rigid analysis (as in § 248., 6., Rem.) might 
insist upon giving to za the rank of a notional verb, in the present 
tense, and consider the second verb as an infinitive. (See §§238., 2., 
b.: 207., Rem. 1.; 227., 1.) 



128 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 

§ 249. ii. 1. a. The Empliatie form of the future, affirma- 
tive, is marked by the use of o in the pronoun nominative, 
with the simple root of the verb. This o occupies the same 
place in the pronoun here, that a does in the simple past (see 
§ 240., 1.), — taking the place of i or of a in those pronouns 
which end in these letters ; being suffixed to those which con- 
sist of i or u^ or end in ?/, these vowels i or u passing over into 
their cognate consonants ; and taking the place of the pronoun 
a^ third person, second class, plural ; thus, 

' Ngo tanda,' I will love ; ' no tanda,' ye shall love. 

Rem. — This form of the future is evidently derived from the simple, 
full form — ' ngi ya ku tanda'— by a repeated contraction, or an elision 
and composition of its pronoun and auxiliaries. For example, taking 
the second, or inceptive variety of the simple future, ' ngi za ku tanda.' 
dropping fc and uniting a-%i—0. we have 'ngi zo tanda'— a form still 
in frequent use ; and from this, by dropping z, eliding i in ngi, and 
uniting o with the pronoun, we have ' ngo tanda.' 

In the same manner, by dropping y and fc, and joining a-\i {-—o) with 
the iDronoun ngi {—ngo, from the full, simple form, ' ngi ya ku tanda,' 
we have the contracted, emphatic form ' ngo tanda ;' — just as we have 
the contracted form ' ngi so tanda,' from ' ngi sa ya ku tanda.' A con- 
traction of similar extent occurs in the word ' umuntwana,' where, by 
dropping iin and zo, and eliding ??a, we have iimta ; and in like man- 
ner, from 'umuntwana wake.' we have the abridged form — ' umtan' ake.' 

1). The negative of this form is the same as that of the sim- 
ple, first variety ; thus, 

A'ngi yi ku tanda /—indirect, ngi nga yi ku tanda. 

Rem. — According to analogy, the negative of this form would be ob- 
tained by using the negative a before the affirmative ; thus, a ngo 
ta7ida, etc.; but these forms, a ngo tanda, a so tanda, etc., are often 
used as imperative affirmatives, the a being a sign of the imperative 
ma; thus, ma ngo tanda, contracted, a ngo tanda, let me in future 
love. Hence, the use of this form — a ngo tanda as a negative, is sel- 
dom or never heard in Isizulu, except in the auxiliary za or ze ; as, a 
kwo ze ka he ngunapakade, it shall not be forever. 

2. a. This form of the future is sometimes used, like the 
simple, in a predictive sense. But its more frequent use and 
import are, to denote a determination, a promise, or a com- 
mand ; for which purj^ose it is well fitted by the brevity of its 
form. 

Hence it corresponds to the imperative or promissive use of unll in 
the first person, and shall in the second and third, in the English fu- 
ture ; thus, ngo tanda, I will love ; no tanda, ye shall love ; ho tanda, 
they shall love ;— while the full or simple form, as, ngi {ni or ha) ya ku 
tanda, corresponds to the predictive use of shall in the first person, 
English, and to ivill in the second and third jDcrsons ; thus, ngi ya ku 
tanda, I shall love ; ngo tanda, I will love ; ni ya ku tanda, ye will 
love ; no tanda, ye shall love. 

Rem. — To give this form of the future more of the imperative sense 
the imperative sign ma, or simply a, may be used ; as zonke izincwadi 
a zo tunyelwa, let all the letters be sent. 



TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 129 

h. This form is also used in connection with the simple, 
sometimes adversativelj, and sometimes for the sake of va- 
riety of expression ; as, 

A ngi yi ku muka, ngo sola, I shall not depart, I will remain ; a ngi 
yi ku fa, ngo pila, 1 shall not die, but recover ; ngi ya ku ya, ngo tenga,. 
I shall go and purchase. 

§ 250. iii. 1. The Continuate form of the future is derived 
from the simple forms of the same, by the nse of sa before the 
auxiliaries ija or za of the simple, the a of <S'« changing to e 
before za ; thus, 

Affirmative, ngi sa ya ku tanda, I yet or still shall love, literally, I 
am still going to love ; ngi se za ku tanda, I am still about to love. 

Negative, direct, a ngi sa, yi ku tanda, I am not still going to love, or 
I shall love no more ;^ndirect, ngi nga sa yi ku tanda, (that) I am not 
still going to love. 

Rem. 1. — Sometimes these forms are greatly abridged (see § 16., and 
§249., 1., a., Rem.), ngi sa ya ku tanda being contracted into ngi so 
tanda ; and, a ngi sa yi ku tanda, into a ngi so tanda. These short 
forms are not, however, very common, except in strong idiomatic, neg- 
ative expressions, such as, a ngi so ze ngi tande, I will never love ; a 
ka so ze a bone ukupila, he shall never see life. 

Rem. 2. — We sometimes meet with a kind of compound or redupli- 
cated variety of this form, especially in the negative, as in the follow- 
ing examples,— a ngi so ze (or za) nga tanda, full form, a ngi sa yi ku 
za ngi sa tanda, I will never love more, literally, I am not still going 
to come and still love ; uma si kutele a si so ze sa fa yindingo, if we are 
industrious we shall never again, or still, die of want. (See §235., 2., 
Rem. 2.) 

2. The general import of the continuate future is suffi- 
ciently indicated by the foregoing examples, and b}^ remarks 
upon the same form in the present tense, and upon the simple 
form of the future. (See §§ 235., 248.) 

§ 251. iv. 1. The Definite form of the future, affirmative, 
is marked by the use of the auxiliary se^ with or without its 
pronoun, before the simple form of the future ; thus, 

Se ngi ya ku tanda, full form, ngi se ngi ya ku tanda, evidently I 
shall love, or I am just a going to love ; se ngiza kufa, I am just ready 
to die, or I am at the point of death. 

2. The negatives for this form are the same as those of the 
last, the continuate ; as, a ngi sa yi ku tanda ; a ngi so ze ngi 
tande ; a ngi so ze nga tanda ; — indirect, ngi nga so za nga 
tanda. 

§ 252. V. 1. The Indefinite or occasional form of the future 
is marked by the use of the auxiliary ke in the future, before 
the principal verb and its pronoun, the final vowel of the 
principal verb a being changed to e ; thus, 

Affirmative, ngi ya ku ke ngi tande, I shall sometime love. 
Negative, direct, a ngi yi ku ke ngi tande, I shall not sometime love ; 
— indirect, ngi nga yi ku ke ngi tande, (that) I shall not sometime love 

9 



130 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 

2. The remarks upon the indefinite of the present, together 
with the above examples, are a sufficient illustration of the im- 
port of this form in the future. 

Rem. — The import of this form, and that of the continuate, renders a 
combination of the two both easy and not uncommon ; thus, ngi sa ya 
ku ke ngi tande, I shall yet love sometime ; a ngi sa yi ku ke ngi tande, 
I shall not yet love at any time. 

§ 253. vi. 1. The Correlative form of the future is marked 
by the us3 of se, and its pronoun, before the simple form of 
the future ; thus, 

Ngi ze ngi ya ku tanda, until I shall love ;— negative, ngi ze ngi nga 
yi ku tanda, until I shall not love. 

Rem.— The verb za may be used in the simple future form, followed 
by the principal verb inflected in e. and its pronoun ; thus, affirmative, 
ngi ya ku za ngi tande, or ngo za ngi tande, and or until I shall love ; — 
negative, a ngi yi ku za ngi tande, and or until I shall not love. 

2. The present form of tlie correlative, as, ngi za ngi tanda, 
or, more frequently, the present perfect, ngi ze ngi tande, is 
often used instead of the above proper future forms, — ^tlie 
mind being carried forward to the time of the event to happen, 
so as to regard it as present ; as is often done in English, 
Avhere the words till, lohen, as soon as, are used. Hence, the 
import of the above forms of the future does not difier essen- 
tially^ from that of the present. 

§ 254. vii. 1. a. The Progressive form of the future is 
marked by the use of the auxiliary ha in the simple future, 
followed by the simple present of the principal verb ; thus, 

Affirmative, ngi ya ku ha ngi tanda, I shall be loving. 
Negative, direct, a 7igi yi ku ha ngi tanda ; — indirect, ngi nga yi ku 
ha ngi tanda. 

h. A second variety of this form is marked by the use of the 
auxiliary ha in the continuate future, together with the prin- 
cipal verb in the simple present ; thus, 

Ngi sa ya ku ha ngi tanda; — negative, a ngi sa yi ku ha ngi tanda. 

c. A third variety employs both the auxiliary ha and the 
principal verb in the continuate form ; thus. 

Si sa ya ku ha si sa tanda, we shall still be still loving ;— negative, a 
si sa yi ku ha si sa tanda, we shall not still be still loving ; or si sa ya 
ku ha si nga sa tandi, we shall still be not still loving. 

2. The imj^ort of this form is sufficiently indicated by re- 
marks upon the progressive of the past (§ 241., 2.), and upon 
the continuate of the present (§235., 2.), together with the ex- 
amples given above. 

§ 255. ly. 1. The Present Perfect tense represents an 
action or state as past and complete at the present time. 



TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 131 

Rem.— This tense, in the Zulu, unlike the same in Eng;lish, may be 
used with words which specify some particular past time, as well as 
with those which specify the present ; thus, ngi tandile izolo, I (have) 
loved yesterday. In this respect, the Zulu lanj»:uage has a parallel in 
the French and German, in both of which languages the auxiliaries 
corresponding to the English have, in the present perfect, are some- 
times correctly used with specified past time : thus, Je V ai vu hier is 
good French, just as ngi m honile izolo is good Zulu ; though, I have 
seen him yesterday would not be good English. So, in German, we 
may have Er hat ihn gestern gelobt, he (has) praised him yesterday ; or, 
ich habe ihn gestern gesehen, =ngi m honile izolo, which we must ren- 
der into English by saying, (not, I have seen, but,) /saw him yesterday. 

2. Of this tense there are five forms, — the Simple, the Con- 
tiniiate, the Definite, the Indefinite, and the Correlative. 

§ 256. i. 1. a. The Siinjple form of the present perfect is 
marked by the inflection of the verb, — the final a being 
changed into ile^ and sometimes contracted into e : thus, 
Ngi tandile, contracted, ngi tande, I have loved, or I loved. 

Rem. 1. — Yerbs ending in ala generally change this into ele 
in forming the present perfect ; thus, 7igi hulele, I have killed, 
from hulala. So, cwele from cwala, lele from lala^ sele from 
sala.^ zele from zala^ twele from twala, honakele from hona- 
kala, nyuhamele from nyukamala. But hlala^ sit, generally 
makes fdezi^ rarely hlalile ; dhlala, play, makes dhlalile. 

Rem. 2. — Yerbs ending; in a7ia generally change this into 
e7ie in forming the present perfect ; thus, si hlangene^ we have 
met together, from hlangana; so tandene from tandmia, pam- 
1)6716 ivom. pamhana ; hwi fumene or fumaniU from fumana. 

Rem. 3. — Many verbs in ata make the present perfect in 
6te ; as, jp6t6 from jpata^ amhet6 from ambata, fumh6te from 
fimibata ; but tahete or tohatiU from tabata, t6t6 or tatile from 
tata. 

Rem. 4. — Some verbs form the present perfect by changing 
final a into i ; or perhaps we should say, from an abridgment 
of the full and regular form by cutting off l6 from He ; thus, 
ngi suti^ I have satisfied my appetite, or I am sated, from sttta 
(or sutil6\ be full or sated. So, mi from ma, 7niti from mita^ 
Ididi from hluta. 

Rem. 5. — The verb tyo makes the present perfect in tyilo / 
hlala^ sit, makes Jdezi., rarely hlalile. 

h. The negative, direct, is marked by the use of the negative 
a, before the pronoun nominative ; thus, 

'A ngi tandile,' I have not loved ;— indirect, by the use of 7iga, after 
the pronoun nominative; thus, 'ngi nga tandile,' (that) I have not 
loved, or I not having loved. 

Rem. — The second variety of the negative for the past tense, simple 
form, constitutes a second variety also for the present perfect ; thus, 
direct, 'a ngi tandanga,' I loved not, or I have not loved ; —indirect, 
' ngi nga tandanga,' (that) I loved not, or have not loved. 



132 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 

2. This form of the verb represents the bemg, action, or ]3as- 
sion, as having taken place at a previous time, but as connected 
also with the present. (See § 255., 1., Rem.). 

Rem.— a. This form of the present perfect has the force of the simple 
present, in some intransitive verbs, especially such as denote the state, 
property or quality of a person or thing ; as, * ku lungile,' it is right ; 
•u lele,' he is asleep; ' ngi mi,' I am standing; * si lambile,' we are 
hungry. 

b. The subjective species of verbs (§ 194.) is often used in this way ; 
thus, 'i sabekile,' it is fearful ; ' i tandekile,' it is lovely. 

§ 257. 1. The other forms, as the Contimiate, Definite, etc., 
are marked by the same auxiliaries, as sa, se, etc., which mark 
the corresponding forms in the other tenses, the principal verb 
in the present perfect always taking the inflected form ile or 
e, as in the simple of the present perfect. 

2. The import of these other forms may be learned from the 
corresponding forms in the other tenses, — the present, past, 
and future, — as already given, and from the above remarks on 
the import of the present perfect ; also from the examples of 
the several different forms of this tense, as given in the follow- 
ing paragraphs : — 

§ 258. ii. The Continuate form of the present perfect ; 

Aff . Ngi sa tandile, I have still loved. 
Neg. A ngi sa tandile, or tandanga. 
Neg. Ngi nga sa tandile, or tandanga. 

§ 259. iii. The Definite form of the present perfect ; 

Aff . Se ngi tandile, or tande, I have just loved. 
Neg. As in the Continuate form, above. 

§ 260. iv. The Indefinite form of the present perfect ; 

Aff. Ngi ke ngi tandile. I have once loved. 
Neg. A ngi ke ngi tandile, I have never loved. 

§ 261. V. The Correlative form of the present perfect ; 
Aff. Ngi ze ngi tandile, and, or until I have loved. 
Neg. Ngi ze ngi nga tandile, until I did not love. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Nga ye ngi tandile, and I have loved, or then I loved. 
Neg. Nga ye ngi nga tandile. contracted, nga ngi nga tande. 

§ 262. Y. The Past Perfect tense ("pluperfect") denotes 
past time, that precedes some other past time, to which it 
refers. Of this there are six forms ; namely, the Simple, the 
Continuate, the Definite, the Indefinite, the Correlative, and 
the Inceptive. 

§ 263. 1. The first variety of each of these forms, except 
the correlative and inceptive, is derived from the correspond- 
ing form of the present perfect, by using before it the aux- 
iliary he and its pronoun ; thus. 

Present perfect, 'ngi tandile.' I have loved; — past perfect, 'ngi be 
ngi tandile,' I had loved, literally, I was I have loved. 



TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODK. 133 

2. The first variety of the correlative employs the auxiliary 
he and its pronoun, after the auxiliary ze / though the second 
variety puts it before the other auxiliaries, as in most of the 
other forms of this tense. (See § 269.) 

3. The inceptive is derived from the simple of the future 
perfect, hy using before it the auxiliary he^ with or without its 
pronoun. (See § 270.) 

§ 2(U. The general import of the several forms of the past 
perfect, may be learned from what has been said upon the cor- 
responding forms in the preceding tenses, together with the 
definition of this tense as already given, and from the exam- 
ples which follow. (See §§265-270.) 

Rem. 1. — The past perfect forms have the significance of the present 
perfect, in all those verbs whose present perfect forjiis have a present 
signification : thus, ngi be ngi mi, contracted, be ngi mi, I was or have 
been standing ; ngi be ugi lambile, I was or have been hungry. 

Rem. 2.— Other verbs, as well as those signifying some state or attri- 
bute of an object, are sometimes used in a past perfect form with a 
present perfect import, — this import, in such cases, being of a progres- 
sive character ; thus, ngi be ngi bonile. contracted, be ngi bonile, I had 
seen, — literally, I was I have seen ; and hence, according to the con- 
nection, either, I had seen, or I have been seeing. 

Rem. 3. — Where the past perfect form lias the force of the present 
perfect, the past perfect import may be given, by using before it the 
auxiliary ye with its pronoun in the -a form, — the auxiliaries of the 
third variety of the correlative, past perfect ; thus, nga ye ngi be ngi 
mi, I had stood, or I had been standing ; nga ye ngi be ngi lambile, I 
had hungered, or I had been hungry. 

The following are examples of the principal forms and vari- 
eties of the Past Perfect Tense : — 
§ 265. i. The Sim,])le form, 

Aff. (Ngi) be ngi tandile, I had loved. 
Neg. (Ngij be ngi nga tandile. 

§ 266. ii. The Continuate form, 

Aff. (Ngi) be ngi sa tandile, I had still loved. 
Neg. (Ngi) be ngi nga sa tandile. 

§ 267. iii. The Definite form, 

Aff. Ngi be se ngi tandile. I had evidently loved. 
Neg. Ngi be ngi nga sa tandile. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Nga be ngi se ngi tandile, I had already loved. 
Neg. Se nga be ngi nga tandile. 

Third variety, 

Aff. Se ngi be ngi tandile, already had I loved. 
Neg. Se ngi be ngi nga tandile. 

§ 268. iv. The Indefinite form, 

Aff. (Ngi) be ngi ke ngi tandile, I had once loved. 
Neg. (Ngi) be ngi ke ngi nga tandile. 
Neg. Nga be ngi nga zanga ngi tande. 



134 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 

§ 269. V. The Correlative form, 

Aff. Ngi ze ngi be ngi tandile, until I had loved. 
Neg. Ngi ze ngi be ngi nga tandile. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Ngi be ngi ze ngi tandile, I had then loved. 
Neg. Ngi be ngi ze ngi nga tandile. 

Third variety, 

Aff. ISTga (ye) ngi be ngi tandile. and, or then I had loved, 
Neg. Nga (ye) ngi be ngi nga tandile. 

§ 270. vi. The Inceptive form, 

Aff. (Ngi) be ngi ya ku ba ngi tandile, I was about to have loved, 
or I would, should, or might have loved. 
Neg. (Ngi) be ngi ya ku ba ngi nga tandile. 
Neg. (Ngi) be ngi nga yi ku ba ngi tandile. 

Rem. — Parentheses ( ) in the above examples signify that the part en- 
closed may be omitted. Using the part enclosed gives the full form ; 
omitting it. the contracted ; thus, ngi he ngi tandile^ contracted, he vgi 
tandile. So in other places. 

§ 271. YI. The Future Perfect tense ("second fnture ") de- 
notes fntnre time, that precedes some other futnre time, to 
which it refers. Of this there are six forms ; namely, the 
Sim2)le, the Emphatic, the Continnate, the Definite, the In- 
definite, and the Correlative. 

§ 272. 1. These forms are derived from the corresponding 
forms of the future, by substituting the auxihary ha in place 
of the j^rincipal verb of the future, and subjoining the simple 
present perfect of the principal verb. See examples given 
below. 

2. The import of the several forms of the future perfect, 
may be learned from the definition of this tense as already 
given, and from corresuonding forms in the foregoing — pres- 
ent, past, and future — tenses, and also from the following — 

Examples of the Future Perfect Tense : — 

§ 273. i. The Simple form, 

Aff. Ngi ya ku ba ngi tandile, I shall have loved. 
Neg. A ngi yi ku ba ngi tandile. 
Neg. Ngi nga yi ku ba ngi tandile. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Ngi za ku ba ngi tandile, I am about to have loved. 
Neg. A ngi z' uku ba ngi tandile. 

§ 274. ii. The Emphatic form, 

Aff. Ngo ba ngi tandile, I will have loved. 
Neg. As in the simple form, ahove. 

§ 275. iii. The Continuate form, 
Aff. N^i sa ya ku ba ngi tandile, I shall yet have loved. 
Neg. A iigi sa yi ku ba ngi tandilp. 



'lENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE 135 

Second variety, 

Aff. Ngi se za ku ba ngi tandile, I am yet about to have loved. 
Neg. A ngi se za ku ba ngi tandile. 

§ 276. iv. The Definite form, 

Aff. Se ngi ya ku ba ngi tandile, already I shall have loved. 
Neg. A ngi s'a yi ku ba ngi tandile. 

§ 277. V. The Indefinite form, 

Aff. Ngi ya ku ke ngi be ngi tandile, I shall sometime have loved. 
Neg. A ngi yi ku ke ngi be ngi tandile. 

§ 278. vi. The Correlative form, 

Aff. Ngi ze ngi ya ku ba ngi tandile, until I shall have loved. 
Neg. Ngi ze ngi nga yi ku ba ngi tandile. 

§ 279. General Remarks upon the foregoing Tenses. — 
1. The foregoing are the principal forms of the several tenses 
of the indicative mode. They do not profess to include a spe- 
cimen of every possible form, whether fnll or contracted, with 
which we may meet ; but they are deemed sufficient, together 
with the remarks with which they are accompanied, to show 
the proper structure and import, not only of those which are 
given, but of any others which may be required or ever occur 
in the indicative mode. 

2. a. As before remarked, sometimes the characteristic parts 
of two, or more, of some of the foregoing forms, in any given 
tense, may be combined, so as to form a compound, the force of 
which may be a modification of the two values combined ; thus. 

In the last, — the future perfect tense, — the continuate, ngi sa ya ku 
ba ngi tandile, I shall yet have loved, and tlie indefinite, 7igi ya ku ke 
ngi be ngi tandile, I shall at some time have loved, — may be united so 
as to form the compound, ngi sa ya ku ke ngi be ngi tandile, signifying, 
I shall yet on some occasion have loved. 

h. Another, a progresswe form, might have been added also 
in the last, — the future perfect ; thus, 

Ngi ya ku ba ngi be ngi tandile, I shall have been loving. 
And in the correlative form, another variety might have been given ; 
thus, nga ye ngi ya ku ba ngi tandile, and, or then I shall have loved. 

c. So in the past perfect tense, a correlative inceptive com- 
pound might be given ; thus, 

Nga ye ngi be ngi ya ku ba ngi tandile, and then I was about to have 
loved, or I might, could, or should have loved. 

And in the past tense, an inceptive progressive compound may be 
used ; thus, ngi be ngi ya ku ba ngi tanda, I was about to be loving, or 
I should or would be loving. 

3. The last two tenses, — the past perfect and the future per- 
fect, — and many of the forms in the other tenses, — in fact all 
the forms in which two or more auxiliaries are used, might be 
called compound or augmented forms ; but a classification and 
nomenclature of this kind have not been deemed expedient. 



Idb TENSES OF THE POTENTIAL MODE. 

B. Tenses of the Potential Mode. 

§ 280. The Tenses in the Potential Mode are the same in 
number and name as in the indicative, — the Present, the Past, 
the Future; the Present Perfect, the Past Perfect, and the 
Future Perfect. But the hne of distinction between the tenses 
of the potential is much more vague and obscure than it is in the 
indicative. Tlius, the different forms of the present potential are 
often used in reference to the j^ast and future ; while those of 
the past refer as often to the present perfect and past perfect, as 
to the mere past. Hence, as the future perfect is seldom re- 
quired, we rarely meet with any but the present and past 
forms of the j^otential mode ; though those which are given in 
the future, the present perfect, past perfect, and future per- 
fect, are sometimes used. 

§ 281. To the tenses of the potential mode belong nearly the 
same kinds and varieties of form, as to the tenses of the indic- 
ative. The forms of the potential differ from tliose of the 
indicative, chiefly in the use of the potential auxiliary nga and 
its pronoun. This mark of the potential generally precedes 
the several forms of the indicative ; but not always. Some- 
times the potential is formed by introducing nga and its pro- 
noun between, or after, the auxiliaries of the indicative. 

§ 282. After the full description and illustration of the sev- 
eral characteristics and values of the different forms of the 
indicative mode, already given, and these few general remarks 
upon the formation of the potential, together with what has 
been said upon the import of the potential mode (see 222.), 
and upon its characteristic auxiliary nga\^Q& 211.), it will be 
sufficient, here, to give merely an outline specimen of most of 
the different forms, and varieties of form, which occur under 
the several tenses of this mode, together w^ith as good a trans- 
lation of the same, as the genius and flexibihty of the English 
language will allow. 

Examples of the jDrincipal forms in the several Tenses of the 
Potential Mode. 

% 283. I. Present Tense :— 

i. Simple form, 

Aflf. Si nga tanda, we may love. 

Neg. A si nge tande, contracted, si nge tande. 

Second variety, or full, and probably original form, 

Aff. Si nga si tanda, we may or ought to love. 
Neg. Si nga si nga tandi. 

ii. Continuate form, 

Aff. Si nga sa tanda, we may still love. 
Neg. Si nge sa tande. 






TENSES OF THE POTENTIAL MODE. 137 

iii. Definite form, 

Aff. Se si nga tanda, now we may love. 

Neg. Se si nge tande. 

iv. Indefinite form, 

Aff. Si nga ke si tande, we may sometimes love. 

Neg. (A) si nge ke si tande. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Si nga ze si tande, we may as well love. 
Neg. Si nge ze sa tanda, we can never love. 

V. Correlative form, 

Aff. Si ze si nga tanda, until we may love. 
Neg. Si ze si nge tande. 

vi. Progressive form, 

Aff. Si nga ba si tanda, we may be loving. 
Neg. (A) si nge be si tanda. 

Second variety — progressive and continnate, 

Aff. Si nga ba si sa tanda, we may be still loving. 
Neg. Si nge be si sa tanda, or, si nga be si sa tanda. 

Third variety — correlative progressive and continnate, 

Aff. Si ze si nga ba si sa tanda, and, or then, w^e may be still loving. 
Neg. Si ze si nge be si sa tanda. 

§284. II. Past Tense:— 
i. Simple form, 

Aff. (Si) be si nga tanda(yo), we might, could, or would love, or 
Neg. (Si) be si nge tande. [have loved. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Sa be {or ba) si nga tanda(yo). 
Neg. Sa be {or ba) si nge tande. 

Third variety, 

Aff. Sa ye si nga tanda(yo). 
Neg. Sa ye si nge tande. 

ii. Progressive form, 

Aff. Sa be si nga ba si tanda, we might be, or have been loving. 
Neg. Sa be si nga ba si nge tande. 

iii. Continnate form, 

Aff. Sa be si nga ba si sa tanda, we might be still loving. 
Neg. Sa be si nge be si sa tanda. 

iv. Definite form, 

Aff. Se si be si nga tanda, already might we love. 
Neg. Se si be si nge tande. 

V. Indefinite form, 

Aff. (Si) be si nga ke si tande, we might sometimes love. 
Neg. (Si) be si nge ke si tande. 

vi. Correlative form, 

Aff. Si ze si be si nga tanda, until we might love. 
Neg. Si ze si be si nge tande. 



138 TENSES OF THE POTENTIAL MODE. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Sa (ye) si be si nga tanda, and, or then we might love. 
Neg. Sa (ye) si be si nge tande. 

vii. Inceptive form, 

Aff. Sa nga si ya ku tanda, it seemed as if we might, should, or 
2d V. Kwa nga si ya ku tanda. [were about to love. 

Neg. Kwa nga si nga yi ku tanda. 

§ 285. III. Future Tense :— 
i. Simple form, 

Aff. Si nga si ya ku tanda, it seems, or may be, we shall love, or it 
seems as if we might or should love. 
2d V. Ku nga si ya ku tanda. 
Neg. Si nga (ng) a si yi ku tanda. 

ii. Continiiate form, 

Aff. Si nga si sa ya ku tanda, it may be we still shall love. 
Neg. Si nga a si sa yi ku tanda. 

iii. Definite form, 

Aff. Se si nga si ya ku tanda. already it may be we shall love. 
Neg. Se si nga a si yi ku tanda. 

iv. Indefinite form, 

Aff. Si nga si ya ku ke si tande, it may be we shall sometime love. 
Neg. Si nga a si yi ku ke si tande. 

V. Correlative form, 

Aff. Si ze si nga si ya ku tanda, until it may be we shall love. 
Neg. Si ze si nga a si yi ku tanda. 

vi. Progressive form, 

Aff. Si nga si ya ku ba si tanda, it may be we shall be loving. 
Neg. Si nga a si yi ku ba si tanda. 

§ 286. lY. Present Perfect Tense :— 
i. Simple form, 

Aff. Si nga si tandile, it seems, or seems as if. we have loved, or 

2d V. Ku nga si tandile. [we may have loved. 

Neg Si nga a si tandile. 

2d V. Si nga si nga tandile. 

ii. Continnate form, 

Aff. Si nga si sa tandile, it seems as if we still loved, or we may 
Neg. Si nga a si tandile. [still have loved. 

iii. Definite form, 

Aff. Se si nga si tandile, already we may have loved. 
Neg. Se si nga a si tandile. » 

iv. Indefinite form, 

Aff. Si nga si ke si tandile, it seems as if we sometimes loved, it 
may be we once loved, or wc may have loved once. 
Neg. Si nga si nge ke si tandile. 

V. Correlative form, 

Aff. Si ze si nga si tandile, until we may have loved. 
Neg. Si ze si nga a si tandile. 



TENSES OF THE POTENTIAL MODE. 189 

Second variety, 

Aff. Sa (ye) si nga si tandile, and, or then we may have loved. 
Neg. Sa (ye) si nga a si tandile. 

vi. Progressive form, 

Aff. Si nga ba (or be) si tandile, we may have been loving. 
Neg. Si nge be si tandile. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Si nga be si sa tandile, we may have been still loving. 
Neg. Si nge be si sa tandile. 

§ 287. y . Fast Perfect Tense :— 
i. Simple form, 

Aff. Si nga si be si tandile, we might have loved, or it seems as if 
Neg. Si nga si be si nga tandile. [we could love or have loved. 

ii. Continuate form, 

Aff. Si nga si be si sa tandile, we might have loved still. 
Neg. Si nga si be si nga sa tandile. 

iii. Definite form, 

Aff. Si nga se si be si tandile, we might already have loved. 
Neg. Si nga se si be si nga tandile. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Si nga si be se si tandile, we might have already loved. 
Neg. Si nga si be (ng)a si ka tandi. 

iv. Indefinite form, 

Aff. Si nga si be si ke si tande, we might have loved once. 
Neg. Si nga si be si ke si nga tande. 

V. Correlative form, 

Aff. Si ze si nga si be si tandile, until we might have loved. 
Neg. Si ze si nga si be si nga tandile. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Sa ye si nga si be si tandile, and we might have loved. 
Neg. Sa ye si nga si be si nga tandile. 

vi. Correlative and progressive form, 

Aff. Sa ye si nga ba si be si tandile, and we might have been loving. 
Neg. Sa ye si nga ba si be si nga tandile. 

§ 288. YI. Ftiture Perfect Tense :— 
i. Simple form, 

Aff. Si nga si ya ku ba si tandile, it may be we shall have loved. 
Neg. Si nga a si yi ku ba si tandile. 

ii. Continuate form, 

Aff. Si nga si sa ya ku ba si tandile, it may be we shall still have 
Neg. Si nga a si sa yi ku ba si tandile. [loved. 

iii. Definite form, 

Aff. Se si nga si ya ku ba si tandile, already it may be we shall 
Neg. Se si nga a si yi ku ba si tandile. [have loved. 

iv. Indefinite form, 

Aff. Si nga si ya ku ka si tande, it may be we shall have loved 
Neg. Si nga si nga yi ku ka si tande. [sometime. 



140 TENSES OF THE OPTATIVE MODE. 

§ 289. General Remarks on the foregoing Examples. — 
i. To prevent the danger of confounding the pronoun ngi in 
its -a form ( = nga^ past tense), with the auxiliary nga^ or with 
the negative particle nga^ as in nga he ngi nga tanda, I might 
love ; nga nga ngi nga yi kii tanda, it seemed I might not 
have loved, etc., the specimen forms of the potential and of 
the optative modes are generally given with the pronoun si 
and sa, first person plural ; thus, 

Sa he si nga tanda ; sa (or kwa) nga si nga yi ku tanda. 

2. A j)arenthesis is sometimes employed to denote words 
which ma}^ be omitted, indicating at once both the full and 
the contracted form ; thus, 

(A) si nge tande, contracted, si nge tande ; (si) be si nga tanda, con- 
tracted, be si nga tanda. 

3. In relative and other accessory clauses, when two forms, 
the one affirmative and the other negative, differ only in the 
final vowel, the particle yo may be suffixed (and sometimes Jco), 
by which means the difference is clearly marked by giving the 
accent to the distinctive vowel ; thus, 

Sa be si nga taridayo (instead of tanda), in tlao past, potential, simple, 
affirmative, second variety, to distinguish it from the indirect negative 
of one variety of the progressive, indicative— sa be si nga tandiyo (in- 
stead of tandi) ; so again, in the potential, present, definite, affirmative, 
sesi nga tanda may be distinguished more clearly from the indicative, 
present, definite, negative, se si nga tandi, by suffixing yo, or ko, and 
thus throwing the accent on the final vowels, a and i ; thus, se si 7iga 
tandako. 

4. Sometimes the indefinite pronoun ktf., instead of the spe- 
cific pronoun 7igi^ si, etc., is used before the auxiliary nga • 
thus, 

Ku nga si ya ku tanda, instead of si nga si ya ku tanda ; ku nga si 
tandile, instead of si nga si tandile. 

C. Tenses of the Optative Mode. 

§ 290. The Tenses of the Optative Mode are the same as in 
the indicative and potential. But the number of forms, be- 
longing to its several tenses, is generally less ; though in some 
cases the varieties of a given form are greater in the optative, 
than they are in the indicative and jDotential. 

§ 291. 1. In most cases, the potential form may be con- 
sidered as the basis of the optative, the latter being derived 
from the former by a repetition or duplicate use of the auxil- 
iary nga, generally with its pronoun, and sometimes with addi- 
tional auxiliaries ; thus. 

From ngi nga tanda, I may love, is formed the optative ngi nga 
ngi nga tanda, may I love ; or se nga ti ngi nga tanda, oh that I may 
love! (See §223.) 



TENSES OF THE OPTATIVE MODE. 141 

2. In some instances, the same form may be considered as 
belonging to both the potential and the optative ; thus, 

The optative — nga si tanda, may we love, or we should, or ought to 
love, — is only a slight contraction of the full potential — si nga si tanda, 
we may love. 

3. In some cases, the imperative form may be regarded as 
the basis of the optative, its auxiliary sign ma being contracted 
to a / thus, 

*S'e kit nga ti a ngi tande, oh that I may love ! literally, already it may 
signify, let me love. 

And sometimes the auxiliary n(/a, eitlier full, or contracted 
to a, is used like the contracted imperative particle a, in the 
optative ; thus, 

Se ku nga ti nga se ngi fe, or. se nga ti a se ngi fe, would that I were 
already dead. 

Rem. 1. — The general, indefinite pronoun ku is often used, instead of 
the more definite ngi, si, ha. etc.. before the antecedent nga; thus, ku 
nga ngi nga tanda, instead of ngi nga ngi nga tanda. 

Rem. 2.— The phrase se ku nga, ti. — already it may say, think, or sig- 
nify. — which enters so largely into the formation of the optative, is 
generally used in one or another contract form ; thus, by dropping k, 
w(; have se u nga ti ; by uniting e and u (=0), we have so nga ti; or by 
dropping ku. we have the most common form se nga ti. 

§ 292. The significatious of the forms of this mode are more 
varied than in most of the other modes, inclining sometimes to 
an imperative character, and sometimes to a potential ; and 
having, in this respect, a resemblance to the optative of the 
Greek language. 

§ 293. With the foregoing remarks upon the general charac- 
ter of the optative mode, together with what was said upon 
the form and import of the same (§ 223.), including remarks 
uj^on the auxiliary ?i^« (§211.), and also upon ^^'(§215.); as 
specimens and illustrations, it will be sufficient to give the fol- 
lowing — 

Examples of some of the principal forms in the several 
Tenses of the Optative Mode. 

% 294. I. Pi'esent Tense : — 

i. Simple form, 

Aff. Si nga si nga tanda, it seems as if we might love, may we love, 
Neg. Si nga si nge tande. [or we ought to love. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Nga si tanda, we ought to love. 

Aff. Indirect, Si nga tanda, that we must love. 

Neg. Nga si nga tandi. 

Third variety, 

Aff. Nge si tanda, we would or should love. 
Neg. Nge si nga tandi. 



142 TENSES OF THE OPTATIVE MODE. 

ii. Emphatic form, 

Aff. Se ku nga ti si nga tanda, contracted, se nga ti si nga tanda, it 
seems as if we ought to love, or, oh that we may love. 
Neg. Se ku nga ti si nge tande, contracted, se nga ti si nge tande. 

iii. Continuate form, 

Aff. Si nga nga si sa tanda, we wish still to love. 
Neg. Si nga nga si nga sa tandi. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Se nga ti si nga sa tanda, oh that we may still love. 
Neg. Se nga ti si nge sa tande. 

iv. Definite form, 

Aff. Se si nga si nga tanda, already we wish to love. 
Neg. Se si nga si nge tande. 

V. Indefinite form, 

Aff. Si nga si nga ke si tande. we wish to love sometime. 
Neg. Si nga si nge ke si tande. 

vi. Progressive form, 

Aff. Nga si be (or ba) si tanda, we ought to be loving. 

Neg. Nga si be {or ba) si nga tandi. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Se nga ti si nga be si sa tanda, oh that we might be still loving. 
Neg. Se nga ti si nga be si nga sa tandi. 

§295. II. Fast Tense:— 
i. Simple form, 

Aff. Sa nga si nga tanda, we wished to love. 
Neg. Sa nga nga si nga tandanga. 

Second variety, 

Aff, Nga si be si tanda, we ought to love, or to have loved. 
Neg. Nga si be si nga tandanga. 

Third variety, 

Aff. Nga be sa tanda, we should love, or have loved. 
Neg. Nga be si nga tandanga, or tandi. 

Fourth variety, 

Aff. (Si) be si nga si nga tanda, we would love. 
Neg. (Si) be si nga si nge tande. 

ii. Emphatic form, 

Aff. Se nga ti nga sa tanda, oh that we had loved. 
Neg. Se nga ti nga si nga tandanga. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Se (si) nga ti nga be sa tanda, oh would that we had loved. 
Neg. Se (si) nga nga ti nga be si nga tandanga. 

Third variety, 

Aff. Sa si nga ti si nga tanda, would that we might love. 
Neg. Sa si nga ti si nge tande. 



TENSES OF THE OPTATIVE MODE. 143 

iii. Contimiate form, 

Aff. Sa nga iiga si sa tanda, oh that we had still loved. 
Neg. Sa Dga nga si nga sa tandi. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Kwa nga nga si sa tanda. 
Neg. Kwa nga nga si nga sa tandi. 

Third variety, 

Aff. Se nga ti si be si sa tanda. 
Neg. Se nga ti si be si nga sa tandanga. 

iv. Definite form, 

Aff. Se sa nga nga si tanda, plainly would we have loved. 

Neg. Se sa nga nga si nga tandanga, or tandi. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Se be si nga si nga tanda, now would we had loved. 
Neg. Se be si nga si nge tande. 

Third variety, 

Aff. Se si nga nga sa tandayo, now we wish we had loved. 
Neg. Se si nga nga si nga tandanga, or tandiyo. 

V. Indefinite form, 

Aff. Be si nga si nga ke si tande, we would have loved sometime. 
Neg. Be si nga si nge ke si tande. 

vi. Correlative form, 

Aff. Sa ye si nga si nga tanda, then we should have loved. 
Neg. Sa ye si nga si nge tande. 

vii. Progressive form, 

Aff. Se u nga ti nga be sa (be) si tanda, oh that we were loving. 
Neg. Se u nga ti nga be sa (be) si nga tandi. 

§ 296. III. Fiitiire Tense :— 
i. Simple form, 

Aff. Si nga nga si ya ku tanda, we shall wish to love, we would or 
should love, or it seems as if we ought to love. 
Neg. Si nga nga si nga yi ku tanda. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Nga si ya ku tanda, we ought to love, or we shall wish to love. 
Neg. Nga si nga yi ku tanda. 

Third variety, 

Aff, Si ya ku nga si nga tanda, we shall wish we loved. 
Neg. Si ya ku nga si nge tande. 

ii. Emphatic form, 

Aff. Se nga ti nga si ya ku tanda, we must or should love. 
Neg. Se nga ti nga si nga yi ku tanda. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Se nga ti si nga ze si tanda, oh that we may love. 
Neg. Se nga ti si nge ze si tanda. 



144: TENSES OF THE OPTATIVE MODE. 

iii. Continuate form, 

Aff . Si nga nga si sa ya ku tanda, we shall wish still to love. 
Neg. Si nga nga si nga sa yi ku tanda. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Nga si sa ya ku tanda, we ought still to love. 
Neg. Nga si nga sa yi ku tanda. 

iv. Definite form, 

Aff. Se si ya ku nga si nga tanda, now we shall wish to love. 
Neg. Se si ya ku nga si nge tande. 

§ 297. IV. Present Perfect Tense :— 
i. Simple form, 

Aff. Si nga (si) nga si tandile, may we have loved, or we wished to 
Neg. Si nga (si) nga si nga tandile, tande, or tandanga. [love. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Nga si tandile, we ought to have loved. 
Neg. Nga si nga tandile, tande, or tandanga. 

ii. Emphatic form, 

Aff. Se nga ti nga si tandile, or tande, oh that we loved, had loved, 
or may have loved. 
Neg. Se nga ti nga si nga tandile, tande, or tandanga. 

iii. Continuate form, 

Aff. Nga si sa tandile, we ought still to have loved. 
Neg. Nga si nga sa tandile, tande, or tandanga. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Se nga ti nga si sa tandile, oh that we still loved. 
Neg. Se nga ti nga si nga sa tandile. 

iv. Definite form, 

Aff. Se nga ti si Dga se si tandile, oh that we already loved. 
Neg. Se nga ti si nga se si nga tandile. 

V. Progressive form, 

Aff. Nga si be si tandile, we should be, or have been loving. 
Neg. Nga si be si nga tandile. 

§ 298. Y. Past Perfect Tense:— 
i. Simple form, 

Aff. Si nga si nga (si) be si tandile, we would have loved. 
Neg. Si nga si nga (si) be si nga tandile. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Nga (si) be si tandile, we should have loved. 
Neg. Nga (si) be si nga tandile. 

ii. Emphatic form, 

- Aff. Se nga ti nga (si) be si tandile, oh that we had loved. 
Neg. Se nga ti nga (si) be si nga tandile. 

Second variety, 

Aff. Kwa (be) ku nga ti nga si tandile, or tande. 

Neg. Kwa (be) ku nga ti nga si nga tandile, or tandanga. 



te:nses of the imperative mode. 145 

iii. Coiitiniiate form, 

Aff. Nga (si) be si sa tandile, we should have loved still. 
Neg. Nga (si) be si nga sa tandile, 

§ 299. YI. Future Perfect Tense:— 

i. Simple form, 

Aff. Si ya ku nga nga si tandile, we shall wish we had loved. 
Neg. Si ya ku nga nga si nga tandile. 

ii. Coiitiiuiate form, 

Aff. Si ya ku nga nga si sa tandile, we shall wish we had still loved. 
Neg. Si ya ku nga nga si nga sa tandile. 

§ 300. Most of the remarks made on the Potential Mode, 
^ 289, are equally true of the Optative. It should be added, 
however, that there is a peculiar intonation, the rising slide of 
the voice, on tlie penult of the principal verb, to aid in mark- 
ing the affirmative, and the falling slide, to aid in marking the 
negative, which is much more manifest and important in the 
optative, than it is in the potential. 

D. Tenses of the Imperative Mode. 

§ 301. There are three Tenses in the Imperative Mode ; 
namely, the Present, the Present Perfect, and the Future ; and 
in each tense there are several forms. For the formation of 
this mode, and its several characteristics, see §§ 212., 224. 

The followinc: are examples of most of the different forms 
in the several Tenses of the Imperative Mode. 

§ 302. I. Present tense :— 

i. Simple form, 

Aff. Ma ngi tande, let me love, or I must love. 
Neg. Ma ngi nga tandi. 

ii. Emphatic form, 

Aff. Mana ngi tande, do let me love. 
Neg. Mana ngi nga tandi. 

iii. Indefinite form, 

Aff. Ma ke ngi tande, contracted, a ke ngi tande, or ke ngi tande, 
or ka ngi tande, now just let me love. 

Neg. Ma ke ngi nga tandi, contracted, a ke ngi nga tandi, or ke ngi 
nga tandi. 

iv. Progressive form, 

Aff. Ma ngi be ngi tanda, let me be loving. 
Neg. Ma ngi be ngi nga tandi. 
2d V. Ma ngi nga bi ngi tanda. 

§ 303. II. Present Perfect Tense:— 

i. Simple form, 

Aff. Ma ngi be ngi tandile, or tande, let me have loved. 
Neg. Ma ngi be ngi nga tandile, or tande. 

10 



14:6 TENSES OF THE SUBJL^NCTIVE MODE. 

ii. Indefinite, form, 

Aff. Ma ke ngi be ngi tandile, just let me have loved. 
Neg. Ma ke ngi be ngi nga tandiie. 

§ 304. III. Futicre Tense:— 

i. Simple form, 

Aff. Ma ngi be ngi ya ku tanda, let it be that I shall love. 
Neg. Ma ngi be ngi nga yi ku tanda. 

ii. Emphatic form, 

Aff. Ma ngo tanda, contracted, a ngo tanda, do let me love. 

Neg. Ma ngo be ngi nga tandi, contracted, a ngo be ngi nga tandi. 

iii. IndeHnite form, 

Aff. Ma ngo ka ngi tande, contracted, ngo ka ngi tande, let me love 
Neg. Ma ngo ka ngi nga tandi. [sometime hereafter. 

iv. Promissive form, 

Aff. Ngo tanda, I will love. 
Neg. A ngi yi ku tanda. 

E. Tenses of the Subjunctive Mode. 

§ 305. 1. The telle Subjnnctive, though confined, in form, 
chiefly to the present, except aftei* ngapcma^ must often be 
rendered by some other tense, to accord with its connection; 
thus, 

Ukuba ngi tande, that I Jove, or that I may, might, or should love ; 
funa a nga hi na 'sikati, lest he have not time ; ngapana ni hamhe, 
then you should go ; ngapane e nga sh sindile na 9 then ought he not to 
have recovered ? or, why then is lie not already well ? 

2. In the conditional Subjunctive there is the same number 
of tenses as in the indicative mode ; and tlie forms of the sub- 
junctive are derived from the indicative by prefacing the lat- 
ter \vith the conjunctions imico^ uJntma^ or uhuba^ each of 
which, in this situation, may be rendered by if. 

3. The number of forms, and varieties of form, are less, 
however, in the subjunctive than in the indicative ; the very 
nature of some of the forms of tlie latter not admitting of 
their being used with the conjunctions whicli mark the sub- 
junctive mode. 

4. For the negative of tlie subjimctive, the second or indirect 
form of the indicative is often taken as the basis. 

§ 306. A few examples will serve as specimens of the verb 

in the several Tenses of the conditional Sid)junctive Mode. 

1. Present Tense ^ 

Aff. Uma ngi tanda, if I love. 

Neg. Uma a ngi tandi ;— indirect, uma ngi nga tandi. 



2. Past' Tense ^ 

Aff. Uma nga tanda, if I did love. 

Neg. Uma a ngi tandanga ;— indirect, uma ngi nga tandanga. 



NUMBEK AND PERSON — CONJUGATION. 147 

3. Future Tense,, 

Aff. Uma ngi ya ku tanda, if I shall love. 

Neg. Uma a ngi yi ku tanda ;— indirect, uma ngi nga yi ku tanda. 

4. Present Perfect Tense, 

Aff. Uma ngi tandile, if I have loved. 

Neg. Uma a ngi tandile ;— indirect, uma ngi nga tandile. 

5. Past Pel] feet Tense, 

Aff. Uma ngi be ngi tandile, if I had loved. 
Neg. Uma ngi be ngi nga tandile. 

6. Future Perfect Tense, 

Aff. Uma ngi ya ku ba ngi tandile, if I shall have loved. 
Neg. Uma ngi nga yi ku ba ngi tandile. 

Sect. 4. — Number and Person, 

§ 307. The Zulu verb, as already remarked (§ 217., Kem.), 
lias no change of form to indicate- either number or person, 
unless the second person plural, where the pronoun ni is sub- 
joined to the verb, be considered an exception. These distinc- 
tions, so far as they exist at all in connection with the verb, 
are confined to the pronouns, wdiich take the rank of separate 
relational words ; and between which and the verb, many of 
the auxiliaries, as also tlie direct pronominal accusatives, wdiere 
they are used, always intervene. When, therefore, we speak 
of the number and person of the verb in Zulu, the terms 
apply, in strict propriety, only to the pronominal subjects to 
which the verb belongs. 

Rem. 1.— The pronouns of the third person have a great variety of 
forms, according to the class and number of the nouns, for which they 
stand. (See ^ 168.) 

Rem. 2. — The general, indefinite pronoun kti is often used, instead of 
a pronoun of a more specific character, in both the singular and the 
plural, and sometimes in place of pronouns of the first and second per- 
son. The use of this iDronoun is often convenient, where several nouns 
of different classes and numbers, giving of course several pronouns of 
different forms, constitute a common subject of one verb. It is also 
common with the passive voice, when the verb is of an impersonal 
character, or where the speaker wishes to give his remark a general 
outward character, without individual specification. The pronoun i, 
third class, singular, is also used sometimes in the same manner. 

Sect. 5 . — Conjugation. 

§ 308. As the Zulu verb has but few genuine inflections, its 
conjugation consists chiefly in variations effected by means of 
auxiliaries, and in the proper arrangement of these and the 
few inflections, according to their mode, tense, and voice, and 
according to the number and person of their pronominal 
subjects. 



148 INDICATIVE MODE — PEESENT TENSE. 

§ 309. A complete conjugation of a verb, in all its numer- 
ous and varied forms of mode and tense, together with each 
number and person, and all the different classes of pronouns, 
written out in full, can not be necessary. After the extended 
notice of the manner in which the several modes and tenses 
are formed (see §§ 217-307.), it will be sufficient to give a con- 
densed paradigm of some of the more important parts and 
forms, as in the following — 

SYNOPTIC TABLE OF A REGULAR VERB. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Ajff. Ukio tanda, to love, 

jN'eg. Uktc nga tand% not to love. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. Simple form — Affirmative, 1 love, etc. (§ 233.) 

Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngi tanda, Si tanda, 

2d u tanda, ni tanda, 

3d 1 u [ej tanda, ba [be] tanda, 

" 2 li tanda, a [e] tanda, 

" 3 i tanda, zi tanda, 

"^ " 4 si tanda, zi tanda, 

"5 lu tanda, zi tanda, 

'• 6 u tanda, i tanda, 

" 7 bu tanda, 

" 8 ku tanda. 

Negative, I love not, or I not loving, etc. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

DIRECT, INDIRECT ; DIRECT, INDIRECT. 

1st A ngi tandi, ngi nga tandi, a si tandi, si nga tandi, 

2d a wu 1 kuj tandi, u nga tandi, a ni tandi. ni nga tandi, 

3d 1 a ka tandi, e [a] nga tandi, a ba tandi, be nga tandi, 

*' 2 a li tandi, li nga tandi, a ka [waj tandi, e [a] nga tandi. 

Rem. — The pronominal form enclosed in brackets [], in the present 
table, may be used, sometimes, in place of that which precedes the 
brackets ; e. g., in most explanatory clauses, e is used instead of u, he 
instead of ha, and e instead of a; and again, in the negative, for eu- 
phonic reasons, yi may be used in place of i, tea in place of a, ku in 
place of u or wu, and also wu in place of u. (See i$§ 221., 16.) 

2. Emphatic form — Affirmative, I do love, etc. (§ 234.) 

Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngi ya tanda, Si ya tanda, 

2d u ya tanda, ni ya tanda, 

3d 1 u ya tanda, ba ya tanda, 

" 2 li ya tanda, a ya tanda, 
etc. , etc. 



INDICATIVE MODE — PAST TENSE. 149 

Negative, I do not love, etc. 

Same as the negative of the Simple form. 

3, Continuate form — Affirmative, I still love, etc. (§ 235.) 

1st person, s. Ngi sa tanda, p. Si sa tanda, 
etc., etc. 

Negative, I do not still love, etc. 

1st S ^ I^ii'^^t' ^ ^^i s^ tandi, p j Direct, A si sa tandi, 

' ■ } Indirect, Ngi nga sa tandi, * ( Indirect, Si nga sa tandi. 

etc. etc. 

4r. Definite form — Affirmative, Now I love, etc. (§ 236.) 

1st person, s. Se ngi tanda, p. Se si tanda, 
etc. etc. 

Negative, I do not yet love, etc. 

1st 9 •! ^ii'^ct' ^ ^gi ^^ tandi, p \ Direct, A si ka tandi, 

' * ] Indirect, Ngi nga ka tandi, * ( Indirect, Si nga ka tandi, 
etc.. etc. 

5. Indefinite form — Affirmative, I sometimes love, etc. (§ 237. ) 

1st person, s. Ngi ke ngi tande, p. Si ke si tande, 
etc. , etc. 

Negative, I do not sometimes love. 

1st person, s. A ngi ke ngi tande, p. A si ke si tande, 
etc., etc. 

6. Correlative form — Affirmative, Until I love, etc. (§ 238.) 

1st person, s. Ngi za ngi tanda, p. Si za si tanda, 
etc., etc. 

Negative, Until I do not love, etc. 

1st person, s. Ngi za ngi nga tandi, p. Si za si nga tandi, 
etc., etc. 

J^ast Tense. 

1. Simple form — Affirmative, I loved, etc. (§ 240.) 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Nga tanda, Sa tanda, 

2d wa tanda, na tanda, 

8d 1 wa tanda, ba tanda, 

" 2 la tanda, a tanda. 





Negative, I did not love, etc. 


^ers. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1st 


A nga tanda. 


A sa tanda. 


2d 


a wa [kwa] tanda. 


a na tanda. 


3d 


1 a ka tanda, 


a ba tanda, 


" 


2 a la tanda. 


a wa [ka] tanda 



150 INDICATIVE MODE— PAST TENSE. 

Second variety of JS^egative. 

1st S \ ^"'®'^*' ^ ^gi tandanga, p j Direct, A si tandanga, 

' ' ] Indirect, Ngi nga tandanga, * / Indirect, Si nga tandanga. 

2^ ^ j Direct, A wu [ku] tandanga, p j Direct, A ni tandanga, 

' ■ ( Indirect, U nga tandanga, * ] Indirect, Ni nga tandanga. 

g^ o i Direct, A ka tandanga, p j Direct, A ba tandanga, 

' • } Indirect, E nga tandanga, ' l Indirect, Be nga tandanga, 

etc., etc. 

2. Progressive form — Affirmative, I was loving, etc. (§ 241.) 

1st person, s. Nga ba ngi tanda, p. Sa ba si tanda. 

Second variety of Affirmative. 

1st person, s. Ngi be ngi tanda, p. Si be si tanda, 
Contracted, Be ngi tanda, Be si tanda. 

Third variety of Affirmative. 

1st person, s. Nga be ngi tanda, p. Sa be si tanda. 
Contracted, Nga ngi tanda, Sa si tanda. 

IS'egative, 1 was not loving, etc. 

1st person, s. Nga ba ngi nga tandi, p. Sa ba si nga tandi, 
Contracted, Nga ngi nga tandi, Sa si nga tandi. 

Second variety of Negative. 
1st person, s. A ngi banga ngi tanda, p. A si banga si tanda. 

3. Continnate form — Affirmative, 1 still loved, etc. (§ 242.) 

1st person, s. Nga sa tanda, p. Sa sa tanda. 

JS'egative, I did not still love. 
1st person, s. A nga sa tanda, p. A sa sa tanda. 

4. Definite form — Affirmative, I was evidently loving, etc. 

(§243.) 
1st person, s. Nga be ngi se ngi tanda, p. Sa be si se si tanda. 

Negative, I was not evidently loving, etc. 
1st person, s. Nga be ngi se ngi nga tandi, p. Sa be si se si nga tandi. 

Second variety of Negative, I was not yet loving, etc. 
1st person, s, Ngi be ngi nga ka tandi, p. Si be si nga ka tandi. 

5. Indefinite form — Affirmative, I once loved, etc. (§ 244.) 
1st person, s. Nga ke nga tanda, p. Sa ke sa tanda. 

Negative, I never loved, etc. 

First variety, 1st person, S. A ngi zanga ngi tande, etc. 

Second variety, " "A ngi banga ngi tanda, etc. 

Third variety, " "A nga kanga nga tanda. etc. 

Fourth variety, " "A ngi bonanga ngi tanda, etc. 

6. Correlative form — Affirmative, Then I loved, etc. (§ 245.) 
1st person, s. Nga za nga tanda, p. Sa za sa tanda. 



INDICATIVE MODE — FUTURE TENSE. 151 

jN'egative, Then I did not love, etc. 
1st, s. Direct, Nga za a nga tanda ; Indirect, Nga za ngi nga tandanga. 

Second variety of Affirmative. 
1st person, s. Nga ye ngi tanda, p. Sa ye si tanda. 

"Negative of second variety. 
1st person, s. Nga ye ngi nga tandi, p. Sa ye si nga tandi. 

7. Inceptive form — Affirmative, I was about to love, etc. 

(§ 246.) 
1st person, s. Be ngi ya ku tanda, p. Be si ya ku tanda. 

Negative. 
1st person, s. Be ngi nga yi ku tanda, p. Be si nga yi ku tanda. 

Second variety. Affirmative. 
1st person, s. Be ngi za ku tanda, p. Be si za ku tanda. 

Negative of second variety. 
1st person, s. Be ngi nge z' uku tanda, p. Be si nge z' uku tanda. 

Third variety, I was still about to love, etc. 

1st nerson 9 ^ Affirmative, Nga be ngi sa ya ku tanda, etc. 
P ' * / Negative, Nga be ngi nga sa yi ku tanda, etc. 

Future Tense. 

1. Shnple form — Affirmative, I shall love, etc. (§ 248.) 

Pevs. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngi ya ku tanda, Si ya ku tanda, 

2d u ya ku tanda, ni ya ku tanda, 

3d 1 u ya ku tanda, ba ya ku tanda, 

" 2 li ya ku tanda, a ya ku tanda. 

Negative, direct, I shall not love, etc. 

Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st A ngi yi ku tanda, A si yi ku tanda, 

2d a u [ku] yi ku tanda, a ni yi ku tanda, 

3d 1 a ka yi ku tanda, a ba yi ku tanda, 

" 2 a li yi ku tanda, a wa [ka] yi ku tanda. 

Negative, indirect. 

Pei^s. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngi nga yi ku tanda, Si nga yi ku tanda, 

2d u nga yi ku tanda, ni nga yi l^u tanda, 

3d e nga yi ku tanda, be nga yi ku tanda, 

etc., etc. 

Second variety — Affirmative. 
1st person, s. Ngi za ku tanda, p. Si za ku tanda. 



152 INDICATIVE MODE — FUTUEE TENSE. 

]^egative of second variety. 

1st person, s. A ngi z' uku tanda, p. A si z' uku tanda, 
etc., etc. 

2. Emphatic form — Affirmative, I will love, etc. (§ 249.) 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngo tauda, So tanda, 

2d wo tanda, no tanda, 

3d 1 wo tanda, bo tanda, 

" 3 lo tanda, o tanda. 

I^Tegative. 
Same as in the Simple form. 

3. Continuate form — Affirmative, I shall still love, etc. (§ 250.) 
1st person, s. Ngi sa ya ku tanda, p. Si sa ya ku tanda. 

E'egative, I shall not still love, etc. 
1st person, s. A ngi sa yi ku tanda, p. A si sa yi ku tanda. 

Second variety of IvTegative, I will never love more, 
ist person, s. A ngi so ze nga tanda, p. A si so ze sa tanda. 

4. Definite form — Affirmative, Now I shall love, etc. 

(§251.) 

1st person, s. Se ngi ya ku tanda, p. Se si ya ku tanda. 

Negative. 
The same as in the Co7itinuate form. 

5. Indefinite form — Affirmative, I shall sometime love, etc. 

(§252.) 
1st person, s. Ngi ya ku ke ngi tande, p. Si ya ku ke si tande. 

Negative. 
1st person, s. A ngi yi ku ke ngi tande, p. A si yi ku ke si tande. 

6. Correlative form — Affirmative, Until I shall love, etc. 

(§253.) 
1st person, s. Ngi ze ngi ya ku tanda, p. Si ze si ya ku tanda. 

Negative. 
1st person, s. Ngi ze ngi nga yi ku tanda, p. Si ze si nga yi ku tanda. 

7. Progressive form — Affirmative, 1 shall be loving, etc. 

(§ 254.) 
1st person, s. Ngi ya ku ba ngi tanda, p. Si ya ku ba si tanda. 



INDICATIVE MODE — PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 153 

Negative. 
1st person, s. A ngi yi kii ba ngi tanda, p. A si yi ku ba si tanda. 

Second variety — Affirmative, I shall still be loving, etc. 
1st person, s. Ngi sa ya ku ba ngi tanda, p. 8i sa ya ku ba si tanda. 

Negative of second variety. 
1st person, s. A ngi sa yi ku ba ngi tanda, p. A si sa yi ku ba si tanda. 

Third variety, I shall still be still loving, etc. 

1st nerson S \ ^ffii'^iative, Ngi sa ya ku ba ngi sa tanda, etc. 
^ ' ' } Negative, A ngi sa yi ku ba ngi sa tanda, etc. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Simple form — Affirmative, I loved, or I have loved, etc. 

(§ 256.) 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngi tandile, or tande, Si tandile, or tande, 
2d u tandile " ni tandile " 

3d 1 u (or e) tandile " ba (or be) tandile " 

" 2 li tandile " a (or e) tandile " 

etc., etc. 

Negative, direct, I loved not, or have not loved, etc. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st A ngi tandile, or tande, A si tandile, or tande, 

2d a u (wu, or ku) tandile, a ni tandile, 

3d 1 a ka tandile, a ba tandile, 

" 2 a li tandile, a wa {or ka) tandile, 
etc., etc. 

Negative, indirect, I not having loved, etc. 

Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngi nga tandile, Si nga tandile, 

2d u nga tandile, • ni nga tandile, 

3d 1 e nga tandile, be nga tandile, 

" 2 li nga tandile, e nga tandile, 

etc., etc. 

Second variety of Negative. 

, o j Direct, A ngi tandanga, etc. 
1st nerson -' ' ^ Indirect, Ngi nga tandanga, etc. 
^ ' \ p ] Direct, A si tandanga, etc. 

^ ■ { Indirect, Si nga tandanga, etc, 
, c' ) Direct, A u tandanga, etc. 
2d person -' ' Indirect, U nga tandanga, etc. 
^ ' ) p ) Direct, A ni tandanga, etc. 

^ ■ { Indirect, Ni nga tandanga, etc. 

For synoptical specimens of the Continuate, Definite, Indefinite, and 
Correlative forms, of this tense, see >^§ 258-261. 



154 INDICATIVE MODE — PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Past Pei^fect Tense. 
Simple form — Affirmative, I had loved, etc. (§ 265.) 



Pers. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1st 
2d 
3d 


Ngi be ngi tandile, 
u be u tandile, 

1 u {or e) be e tandile, 

2 11 be li tandile, 

etc., 


Si be si tandile, 
ni be ni tandile, 
ba {or be) be be tandile, 
a {or e) be e tandile, 
etc. 




Contracted form. 


Pev8. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1st 
2d 
3d' 


Be ngi tandile, 

be u [or u bu) tandile, 

1 u {or e) be tandile, 

2 be li tandile, 

etc., 


Be si tandile, 
be ni tandile, 
ba be {or be be) tandile, 
a be {or e be) tandile, 
etc. 




Negative, I bad not loved, etc. 


Pers. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1st 
2d 
3d 


Ngi be ngi nga tandile, 
u be u nga tandile, 

1 u(o?^e) bee nga tandile, 

2 li be li nga tandile, 

etc.. 


Si be si nga tandile, 
ni be ni nga tandile, 
ba {or be) be be nga tandile, 
a {or e) be e nga tandile, 
etc. 



Contracted form of Negative. 

Per8. Singular. Plural. 

1st Be ngi nga tandile, Be si nga tandile, 

2d be u nga tandile, be ni nga tandile, 

3d 1 e be nga tandile, be be nga tandile, 

2 be li nga tandile, e be nga tandile, 

etc., etc. 

For synoptical specimens of the Continuate, Definite, Indefinite, Cor- 
relative, and Inceptive fornas of this tense, see §§266-270. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Simple form — Affirmative, I shall have loved, etc. (§ 273.) 
Pers. Singular. . Plural. 

1st Ngi va ku ba ngi tandile. Si \a ku ba si tandile, 

2d u ya ku ba u tandile, ni ya ku ba ni tandile, 

3d u [e] ya ku ba e tandile, ba [be] ya ku ba be tandile, 
etc., etc. 

Negative. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st A ngi yi ku ba ngi tandile, A si yi ku ba si tandile, 

2d a wu yi ku ba u tandile, a ni yi ku ba ni tandile, 

3d a ka yi ku ba e tandile, a ba yi ku ba be tandile, 

etc., etc. 

Second variety, I am abont to have loved, etc. 

-, , Q j Affirmative, Ngi za ku ba ngi tandile, etc. 

isr person, ^. ^ ]NT^g^^j^g^ ^ jj^j 2' uku ba ngi tandile, etc. 

For synoptical specimens of the Emphatic, Continuate, Definite, In- 
definite, and Correlative forms of this tense, see §§274-278. 



POTENTIAL MODE PKESENT TENSE. 155 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Simple form — Affirmative, I may love, etc. 

Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngi nga tanda, Si nga tanda, 

3d u nga tanda, ni nga tanda, 

3d la nga tanda, ba nga tanda, 

" 2 li nga tanda, a nga tanda. 

Negative, I may not love, etc. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st A ngi nge tande, A si nge tande, 

2d a wu [ku] nge tande, a ni nge tande, 

3d 1 a ka nge tande, a ba nge tande, 

" 2 a li nge tande, a wa [ka] nge tande. 

Contracted form ^f Negative. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngi nge tande, Si nge tande, 

2d u nge tande, ni nge tande, 

3d la nge tande, ba nge tande, 

" 2 li nge tande, a nge tande. 

Second variety — Affirmative, I may or should love, etc. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngi nga ngi tanda, Si nga si tanda, 

2d u nga u tanda, ni nga ni tanda, 

3d la nga e tanda, ba nga be tanda, 

" 2 li nga li tanda, a nga e tanda, 
etc., etc. 

Negative of second variety, I may or should not love, etc. 

Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngi nga ngi nga tandi. Si nga si nga tandi, 

2d u nga u nga tandi, ni nga ni nga tandi, 

3d a nga e nga tandi, ba nga be nga tandi, 

etc., etc. 

For synoptical specimens of the Continuate, Definite. Indefinite, Cor- 
relative, and Progressive forms of this tense, see §288., ii-vi. 

Past Tense. 

Simple form — -Affirmative, I might or conld love, etc. 

Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngi be ngi nga tanda. Si be si nga tanda, 

2d u be u nga tanda, ni be ni nga tanda, 

3d 1 a be e nga tanda, ba be be nga tanda, 

" 2 li be li nga tanda, a be e nga tanda, 

etc., etc. 

Contracted form. 
1st person, s. Be ngi nga tanda, p. Be si nga tanda. 



156 POTENTIAL MODE — FUTURE TENSE. 

JSTegative, I might or could not love, etc. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngi be ngi nge tande, Si be si nge tande, 

2d u be u nge tande, ni be ni nge tande, 

3d 1 a be e nge tande, ba be be nge tande, 

" 2 li be li nge tande, a be e nge tande, 
etc., etc. 

Contracted form. 
1st person, s. Be ngi nge tande, p. Be si nge tande. 

Second variety. 

iof r^ovar^Ti Q i Affirmative, Nga be ngi nga tanda, etc. 
ist peison, ^. -j Negati^e^ ^^^ ^e ngi nge tande, etc. 

Third variety. 

l«f T^pr«nTi <^ \ Affirmative, Nga ye ngi nga tanda, etc. 
ibt person, >:>. | ^eg^tive, Nga ye ngi nge tande, etc. 

For synoptical specimens of the Progressive, Continuate, Definite, 
Indefinite, Correlative, and Inceptive forms of this tense, see §284., 



Future Tense. 

Simple form — Affirmative, It may be I shall love, etc. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngi nga ngi ya ku tanda. Si nga si ya ku tanda, 

. 2d u nga u ya ku tanda, ni nga ni ya ku tanda, 

3d la nga e ya ku tanda, ba nga be ya ku tanda, 

" 2 li nga li ya ku tanda, a nga e ya ku tanda, 
etc., etc. 

IS^egative, It may be I shall not love, etc. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngi nga a ngi yi ku tanda. Si nga a si yi ku tanda, 

2d u nga a wu yi ku tanda, ni nga a ni yi ku tanda, 

3d a nga a ka yi ku tanda, ba nga a ba yi ku tanda. 

Second variety of l^egative. 

Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngi nga ngi nga yi ku tanda. Si nga si nga yi ku tanda, 

2d u nga u nga yi ka tanda, ni nga ni nga yi ku tanda, 

3d a nga e nga yi ku tanda, ba nga be nga yi ku tanda, 

etc. , etc. 

Second variety — Affirmative. 
1st person, s. Ku nga ngi ya ku tanda, p. Ku nga si ya ku tanda. 

Negative of second variety. 
1 st person, s. Ku nga ngi nga y i ku tanda, p. Ku nga si nga yi ku tanda. 

For synoptical specimens of the Continuate, Definite, Indefinite, Cor- 
relative, and Progressive forms of this tense, see §285., ii-vi. 



POTENTIAL MODE — PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 157 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Simple form — Affirmative, I may have loved, etc. 
Fevs. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngi nga ngi tandile, Si nga si tandile. 

2d u nga u tandile, ni nga ni tandile, 

3d la nga e tandile, ba nga be tandile, 

" 2 li nga li tandile, a nga e tandile, 
etc., etc. 

ISTegative, I may not have loved, etc. 
1st person, s. Ngi nga a ngi tandile, p. Si nga a si tandile. 

Second variety of Negative. 

1st person, s. Ngi nga ngi nga tandile, p. Si nga si nga tandile, 
etc., etc. 

Second variety — Affirmative, It may he I have loved, etc. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Kn nga ngi tandile, Ku nga si tandile, 

2d ku nga u tandile, ku nga ni tandile, 

3d ku nga e tandile, ku nga be tandile. 

Negative of second variety. It may be I have not loved, etc. 

Pei^s. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ku nga a ngi tandile, Ku nga a si tandile, 

2d ku nga a wu tandile, ku nga a ni tandile, 

3d ku nga a ka tandile, ku nga a ba tandile. 

Second variety of Negative. 

1st person, s. Ku nga ngi nga tandile, p. Ku nga si nga tandile, 
etc., etc. 

For synoptical specimens of the Continuate, Definite, Indefinite, 
Correlative, and Progressive forms of this tense, see §386., ii-vi. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Simple form — Affirmative, I might have loved, etc. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngi nga ngi be ngi tandile. Si nga si be si tandile, 

2d u nga u be u tandile, ni nga ni be ni tandile 

8d la nga e be e tandile, ba nga be be be tandile, 

" 2 li nga li be li tandile, a nga e be e tandile, 
etc., etc. 

Negative, I might not have loved, etc. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngi nga ngi be ngi nga tandile. Si nga si be si nga tandile, 

2d u nga u be u nga tandile, ni nga ni be ni nga tandile, 

3d la nga e be e nga tandile, ba nga be be be nga tandile, 

" 2 li nga li beli nga tandile, a nga e be e nga tandile, 
etc., etc. 

For synoptical specimens of the Continuate, Definite, Indefinite. Cor- 
relative, and Correlative-Progressive forms of this tense, see §287., 
ii-vi. 



158 OPTATIVE MODE — PRESENT TENSK. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Simple form — Affirmative, It may be I shall have loved, etc. 

1st person, aS. Ngi nga ngi ya ku ba ngi tandile, etc. 
2d " " u.nga u ya ku ba u tandile, etc. 

3d 1 " " a nga e ya ku ba e tandile, etc. 

"2 " " li nga li ya ku ba li tandile, etc. 

etc., etc. 

Negative, It may be I shall not have loved, etc. 

1st person, >S'. Ngi nga a ngi yi ku ba ngi tandile, etc. 
2d " " u nga a wu yi ku ba u tandile, etc. 
3d " "a nga a ka yi ku ba e tandile, etc. 

Second variety of I^egative. 

1st person, S. Ngi nga nga ngi yi ku ba ngi tandile, etc. 
2d " " u nga nga wu yi ku ba u tandile, etc. 
8d " '• a nga nga ye yi ku ba e tandile, etc. 

Third variety of ^Negative. 

1st person, 8. Ngi nga ngi nga yi ku ba ngi tandile, etc. 
2d " " u nga u nga yi ku ba u tandile, etc. 
3d " " a nga e nga yi ku ku ba e tandile, etc. 

For synoptical specimens of the Continuate, Definite, and Indefinite 
forms of this tense, see § 288., ii-iv. 



OPTATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Simple form — Affirmative, May I love, etc. 

^evs. Sirigtdar. Fliiral. 

1st Ngi nga ngi nga tanda, Si nga si nga tanda, 

2d u nga u nga tanda, ni nga ni nga tanda, 

3d 1 u nga (a) nga tanda, ba nga ba nga tanda, 

" 2 li nga li nga tanda, a nga a nga tanda. 

Negative, May I not love, etc. 

Fers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngi nga ngi nge tande, Si nga si nge tande, 

2d u nga u nge tande, ni nga ni nge tande, 

8d 1 u [aj nga a [e] nge tande, ba nga ba nge tande, 

" 2 li nga li nge tande, a nga a nge tande, 
etc., etc. 

Second variety — Affirmative, I ought to love, etc. 

Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Nga ngi tanda, Nga si tanda, 

2d nga u tanda, nga ni tanda, 

3d 1 nga ye tanda, nga be tanda, 

" 2 nga li tanda, nga ye tanda, 
etc., etc. 



Pers 



OPTATIVE MODE — PAST TENSE^ — FUTUKE TENSE. 159 

Negative of second variet}^, I ought not to love, etc. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Nga ngi nga tandi, Nga si nga tandi, 

2d nga u nga tandi, nga ni nga tandi, 

3d 1 nga ye nga tandi, nga be nga tandi, 

" 2 nga li nga tandi, nga ye nga tandi, 
etc., etc. 

Emphatic form — Affirmative, Oh that I may love, etc. 

Pers. Singular. Plural, 

1st Se nga ti ngi nga tanda, Se nga ti si nga tanda, 

2d se nga ti u nga tanda, se nga ti ni nga tanda, 

3d 1 se nga ti a nga tanda, se nga ti ba nga tanda, 

" 2 se nga ti ii nga tanda, se nga ti a nga tanda, 
etc., etc. 

Negative, 0]i that I may not love, etc. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Se nga ti ngi nge tande, Se nga ti si nge tande, 

2d se nga ti u nge tande, se nga ti ni nge tande, 

3d 1 se nga ti a nge tande, se nga ti ba nge tande, 

" 2 se nga ti li nge tande, se nga ti a nge tande, 
etc., etc. 

For synoptical specimens of the Continuate, Definite, Indefinite, and 
Progressive forms of this tense, see §294., iii-vi. 

Past Tense. 

Simple form — Affirmative, I Avonld love, or have loved. 

Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Kwa nga ngi nga tanda, Kwa nga si nga tanda, 
2d kwa nga u nga tanda, kwa nga ni nga tanda, 

3d kwa nga a nga tanda, kwa nga ba nga tanda, 

etc., etc. 

Negative, I would not love, or have loved, etc. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Kwa nga ngi nge tande, Kwa nga si nge tande, 
2d kwa nga ii nge tande, kwa nga ni nge tande, 

3d kwa nga a nge tande, kwa nga ba nge tande, 

etc., etc. 

For other varieties of this form ; and for the Emphatic, Continuate, 
Definite, Indefinite, Correlative, and Progressive forms of tliis tense, 
see § 295., i-vii. 

Future Tense. 

Simple form — Affirmative, I ought to love forthwith, etc. 

1st person, S. Kwa nga ngi nga ze ngi tande, etc. 
2d " " kwa nga u nga ze u tande, etc. 
3d " " kwa nga a nga ze a tande, etc. 

Negative, I ought not to love forthwith, etc. 

1st person, S. Kwa nga ngi w^o^ ze ngi tande, etc. 
2d " " kwa nga u nge ze u tande, etc. 
3d " " kwa nga a nge ze a tande, etc. 



160 OPTATIVE MODE — PKESENT AND PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Second variety — Affirmative, I must love presently, etc. 

Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Nga ngi ya ku tan da, Nga si ya ku tanda, 

2d nga u ya ku tanda, nga ni ya ku tanda, 

3d 1 nga ye ya ku tanda, nga be ya ku tanda, 

" 2 nga li ya ku tanda, nga ye ya ku tanda, 
etc., etc. 

J^egative of second variety, I must not love presently. 

Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Nga ngi nga yi ku tanda, Nga si nga yi ku tanda, 

3d nga u nga yi ku tanda, nga ni nga yi ku tanda, 

8d nga ye nga yi ku tanda, nga be nga yi ku tanda, 

etc., etc. 

For other varieties of this form, and for synoptical specimens of the 
Emphatic, Continuate, and Definite forms of this tense, see § 296., i-iv. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Simple form — Affirmative, May I have loved, etc. 

1st person, S. Ngi nga nga ngi tandile, or tande, 
2d " *' u nga nga wu tandile, or tande, 
3d " " u nga nga ye tandile, or tande : 
1st person, P. Si nga nga si tandile, or tande, 
2d " " ni nga nga ni tandile, or tande, 
3d " •' ba nga nga be tandile, or tande, 

etc. 

Negative, May I not have loved, etc. 

1st person, S. Ngi nga nga ngi nga tandile, or tandanga, etc. 
2d " " u nga nga wu nga tandile, or tandanga, etc. 
3d " " u [a] nga nga ye nga tandile, or tandanga, etc. 

etc. 
For other varieties of this form, and for synoptical specimens of the 
Emphatic, C-ontinuate, Definite, and Progressive forms of this tense, 
see §297., i-v. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Simple form — Affirmative, I would have" loved, etc. 

1st person, aS^. Kwa nga nga ngi be ngi tandile, 
2d " " kwa nga nga wu be u tandile, 
3d " " kwa nga nga ye be e tandile ; 
1st person, P. Kwa nga nga si be si tandile, 
2d " " kwa nga nga ni be ni tandile, 
3d " " kwa nga nga be be be tandile, 
etc. 

ISTegative, I would not have loved, etc. 

1st person, S. Kwa nga nga ngi be ngi nga tandile, 
2d " " kwa nga nga wu be u nga tandile, 
8d " " kwa nga nga ye be e nga tandile ; 
1st person, P. Kwa nga nga si be si nga tandile, 
2d " " kwa nga nga ni be ni nga tandile, 
3d " " kwa nga nga be be be nga tandile, 
etc. 
For other forms of this tense, see § 298. 



IMPERATIVE MODE — PRESENT TENSE. 161 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Simple form — Affirmative, I shall wish I had loved, etc. 

1st person, 8. Ngi ya ku nga nga ngi tandile, 
2d " " u ya ku nga nga \vu tandile, 
3d " " u [e] ya ku nga nga ye tandile ; 
1st person, P. Si ya ku nga nga si tandile, 
2d " " ni ya ku nga nga ni tandile, 
3d " " ba ya ku nga nga be tandile, 
etc. 

JN'egative, I shall wish I had not loved, etc. 

1st person, S. Ku ya ku nga nga ngi nga tandile, or tandanga, 
2d " " ku ya ku nga nga wu nga tandile, or tandanga, 
3d " " ku ya ku nga nga ye nga tandile, or tandanga ; 
1st person, P. Ku ya ku nga nga si nga tandile, or tandanga, 
2d " " ku ya ku nga nga ni nga tandile, or tandanga, 
3d " " ku ya ku nga nga be nga tandile, or tandanga, etc. 

For other forms of this tense, see § 299. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Simple form — Affirmative, Let me love, etc. 

Fers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ma ngi tande. Ma si tande, 

2d ma u tande, ma ni tanile, 

3d 1 ma ka tande, ma ba tande, 

" 2 ma li tande, ma wa tande, 
etc., etc. 

^N^egative, Let me not love, etc. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ma ngi nga tandi. Ma si nga tandi, 

2d ma u nga tandi. ma ni nga tandi, 

3d ma ka nga tandi, ma ba nga tandi, 

etc., etc. 

Emphatic form — Affirmative, Do let me love, etc. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Mana ngi tande, Mane si tande, 

2d man' u tande, mane ni tande, 

3d man' a tande, mane ba tande, 

etc., etc. 

Negative, Do not let me love, etc. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Mana ngi nga tandi, Mane si nga tandi, 

2d man' u nga tandi, mane ni nga tandi, 

3d man' a nga tandi, mane ba nga tandi, 

etc., etc. 

For synoptical specimens of the Indefinite and Progressive forms of 
this tense, see § 302., iii., iv. 

11 



162 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE — PRESENT TENSE 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Simple form — Affirmative, Let me liave loved, etc. 

Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ma ngi be ngi tandile, Ma si be si tandile, 

2d ma u be u tandile, ma ni be ni tandile, 

3d ma [yej be e tandile, ma ba be be tandile, 

etc., etc. 

Negative, Let me not have loved, etc. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ma ngi be ngi nga tandile, Ma si be si nga tandile, 
2d ma u be u nga tandile, ma ni be ni nga tandile, 

3d ma be e nga tandile, "ma ba be be nga tandile, 

etc., etc. 

For the Indefinite form of this tense, see § 303., ii. 

Flit are Tenst. 

Simple form — Affirmative, Let me be going to love, etc. 

1st person, S. Ma ngi be ngi ya ku tanda, etc. 
2d " '' ma u be u ya ku tanda, etc. 
3d " " ma [e or ye] be e ya ku tanda, etc. 

etc. 

J^egative, Let me be not going to love, etc. 

1st person, S. Ma ngi be ngi nga yi ku tanda, etc. 
2d " " ma u be u nga yi ku tanda. etc. 

3d " " ma be e nga yi ku tanda, etc., or ma be ka yi ku tanda, 
etc. etc. 

For synoptical specimens of the Emphatic, Indefinite, and Promissive 
forms of this tense, see i$ 304., ii-iv. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

TELIC SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Affirmative, That I may, might, would, or should love, etc. 

Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngi tande. Si tande, 

2d u tande, ni tande, 

3d 1 a tande, ba tande, 

" 2 li tande, a tande, 

etc., etc. 

Negative, That I may not love, etc. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Ngingatandi, Si nga tandi, 

2d u nga tandi, ni nga tandi, 

3d la nga tandi, ba nga tandi, 



2 li nga tandi, a nga tandi, 

etc., etc. 



CONDITIONAL SUBJUNCTIVE. 163 

CONDITIONAL SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Affirmative, If I love, etc. 



Pers. Swgiilar. 


Plural. 


1st Uma ngi tanda, 


Uma si tanda. 


2d uma u tanda, 


uma ni tanda. 


3d 1 uma e tauda, 


uma be tanda, 


" 2 uma li tanda, 


uma e tanda. 


etc., 


etc. 



Negative, If I do not love, etc. 
Pers. Singular. Plural. 

1st Uma ngi nga tandi, Uma si nga tandi, 

2d uma u nga tandi, uma ni nga tandi, 

3d 1 uma e nga tandi, uma be nga tandi, 

" 2 uma li nga tandi, uma e nga tandi, 

etc., etc. 

For synoptical specimens of other tenses in this mode, see § 306. 

SYNOPTIC OUTLINE OF A REGULAR VERB 

IN THE 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

§ 310. Geneeal Remarks. — 1, The principal rules for the 
formation of the passive voice have been already given. 
§§ 204-206.) 

2. It should be observed that the negative forms retain a 
final of the principal verb, and likewise e, not changing it, like 
the active in some instances, into i ; thus, a ngi tandwa^ I am 
not loved. 

3. In other respects — save the inserting of iv before the final 
vowel a of the principal verb, or in place of I in the present 
perfect He., and the changing of the consonants, h to ty, 'in to 
ny^ mh to nj, and j? to ty., (§ 205) ; and save the use of a in- 
stead of i in some forms of the negative — the paradigm of the 
passive voice is so similar to that of the active, that a single 
example in each mode and tense, affirmative and negative, will 
be all that is required in illustration of its forms. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Aff. Oku tanchva^ to be loved. 

Neg. UJcu nga tand%oa^ not to be loved. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

)Aff . Ngi tandwa. 
Neg. A ngi tandwa. 
" Ngi nga tandwa. 
( Aff. Nga tandwa. 
Past Tense < Ne^. A nga tandwa. 

( " A ngi tandwanga. 



164 POTENTIAL AND SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

( Aff. Ngi ya ku tandwa. 
Future Tense -j Neg. A ngi yi ku tandwa. 

( " Ngi nga yi ku tandwa. 
( Aff. Ngi tandiwe. 
Present Perfect Tense •< Neg. A ngi tandiwe. 
( " Ngi nga tandiwe. 

Past Perfect Tense \ ^^- ^^^ ^.^J"^' tandiwe. 
( Meg. A ngi be ngi tandiwe. 

Future Perfect Tense ^^- ^^^ l^ ^V ^l''^' tandiwe. 
( Neg. A ngi yi ku ba ngi tandiwe. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense \ 4^' ^,^\ ^^^ tandwa. 

I Neg. Ngi nge tandwe. 

Past Tense \ ^^' g^ "^! "^^ tandwa. 
/ Neg. Be ngi nge tandwe. 

Future Tense -j ^^- g^ ^^^ "^^ ^^ ku tandwa 

( Neg. Ku nga ngi nga yi ku tandwa. 

Present Perfect Tense j ^^- ^^ ^^^ ^^^ tandiwe 

/ Neg. Ku nga ngi nga tandiwe. 

Past Perfect Tense ] i^' |^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ tandiwe 

d Neg. Ku nga ngi be ngi nga tandiwe. 

Future Perfect Tense ■! ^^- ^^^ "^^ "^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ tandiwe. 
J^uture rertect lense -j ^^^^ j^^ ^^^ ^g. ^^^ y. ^^ ^^ ^g. tandiwe. 

OPTATIVE MODE. 

PrPSPTit Tpt^p J ^^- ^^^ ^^^ tandwa. 
rresent J ense ^ ^^^^^ j^^^ ^^g- ^^^ tandwa. 

p««f T*.r.«A i ^^' ^^'^ ^§^^ ^gi "g^ tandwa. 
jrasc ±ense -j ^^^^^ j^^^^ ^^^ ^g. ^^^ tandwe. 

Fi]tiirP Tpnse -S ^^- ^^^ "^^ ^^ ^^^ tandwa. 
J^uture lense ^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^. ^^ tandwa. 



Present Pprfect Tense I ^^- ^^ ^^^ "^^ "^^ tandiwe. 
ir-iesent ±^ertect lense j^^^^ Ku nga nga ngi nga tandiwe. 

Past Perfect Tense \ t^' g'^^ "^a nga ngi be ngi tandiwe 

I Neg. Kwa nga nga ngi be ngi nga tandiv 

Future Pprfect Tense \ ^^- ^^ ^'^ ^^^ ^^"^ "^^ °^^ tandiwe. 
i^uture J-errect lense ^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^g. ^^^ tandiwe 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Pvp«Pi,t Tpusp i ^^- ^^ ^^-^ tandwe. 
riesent lense ^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^g- ^^.^ tandwe. 

Pvpspnt Pprfpct Tpnsp ^ ^^- ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ tandiwe. 
riesent l^eitect lense ^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^g. ^^ j^^- ^^^ tandiwe. 

FntnrP Tptisp -S ^^' ^^^ ^^^ ^® ^^^ ^^ ^^^ tandwa. 
i<uture lense -j j^^^^ j^^ ^g- ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ j^^^ tandwa. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

I tPh>)^^- Ngi tandwe. 

Present Tense ^ ^eg. Ngi nga tandwe. 

/ 1 3 Aif. Uma ngi tandwa. 

V cona. -j ^gg ^j^g^ j^^. j^g^ tandw£.. 

Pa^t TpnsP -i ^^' ^^^ "^^ tandwa. 

irasL lense 1 -^^^ ^^^^ j^^- ^^^^ tandwanga. 

etc., etc. 



IRKEGL'LAE VERBS. 165 

Sect. 6. — Irregular Yerhs. 

§ 311. The conjugation of an irregular voioel verb differB 
from that of a regular verb only so far as a difference is re- 
quired by the laws of euphony in the elision or crasis of con- 
tiguous vowels, and in some of the forms of the imperative. 

1. The final vowel a or i in the auxiliary, pronoun, or nega- 
tive, immediately preceding a vowel verb, is cut off, and its 
place denoted by an a])ostrophe ; thus, 

Ngi if oka for ngi ya aka ; ngi y' enza for ngi ya enza ; ngi ng' enzi 
for ngi nga enzi; w' azi for 'wa azi ; y' oswa for ya oswa. 

2. When the vowel verb is preceded by a pronoun whose 
final vowel is z^, excepting hu, or j^receded by a pronoun con- 
sisting of to or i, these letters change to their corresponding 
consonantal vowels, w and y ; thus, 

Kwaziwa for ku aziwa ; wenzile for u enzile ; yakiwe for i akiwe ; 
yomile for i omile. The pronoun bu before a vowel verb drops u, not 
changing it to w, which would be incompatible with h ; thus, 5' aziwe 
for bu aziwe. 

3. The pronoun Cc before a vowel verb is generally dropped ; 
thus, 

TJkuba azi for ukuba a azi; a ze ome for a ze a ome ; ama,nzi anda 
for amanzi a anda ; amatole oma for a oma. 

But sometimes the pronoun a is retained before a vowel 
verb, especially when it involves the relative, the hiatus being 
relieved by the use of the semi-vowel w, and sometimes y; thus, 

Amadoda a iimzi; a ivomile ; a yona (for a ona). In the past tense, 
however, the relative a and the personal a are preserved each separate, 
the second taking the semi-vowel w, and then, before vowel verbs, the 
w is retained while the a (personal) is elided ; thus, amadoda a iva fika 
for a a fika, who (they) arrived ; a iva tarida for a a tanda, who loved ; 
a 2v' azi for a a azi, who knew ; a w' ona for a a ona, who sinned. 

4. The relative o, and o in the pronoun, emphatic form of 
the future, are generally retained before vowel verbs, the 
hiatus being relieved by the use of lo^ or sometimes kw ^ thus, 

Wena o waziyo ; uniuntu o wonayo ; indoda e yo kwazi ; inkomo e yo 
kwoma. Sometimes, however, the relative o is used before a vowel 
verb without w ; and sometimes it is dropped ; thus, yena o onayo ; 
umimtu omayo for o omayo or o womayo ; yena alayo for o alayo. 

Rem. — The pronoun accusative before irregular vowel verbs is subject 
to the same laws of elision and contraction as the pronoun nomina- 
tive ; thus, ngi ya 6' azi for ba azi ; ngi kwenziJe for ku enzile. 

§ 312. 1. The imperative mode of vowel verbs differs from 
that of regular verbs in prefixing the euphonic y to the second 
person, singular and plural, and also in the elision or crasis of 
vowels for the sake of euphony ; thus, 

Yaka, build (thou) : yakani, build (ye) ; ma ng' enze, let me do ; ma 
s' ose, let us roast. (See § 224.) 



166 IRREGULAR VERBS. 

2. The imperative, second person, may be formed also by the 
use of ma in these, as in other verbs, excej^t so far as elision or 
crasis produces a change ; thus, 

Ma kwake for ma u aJce, build thou ; ma n' enze for ma ni enze, do 
ye. (§234.,!., d.) 

§ 313. The conjugation of an irregular monosyllabic verb 
differs from that of a regular verb in the forming of the imper- 
ative, second person, by prefixing yi to the root ; thus, 

Yiya, go (thou) ; yiyani, go ye, from uku ya ; yiza, come (thou) ; 
yizani, come ye, from uku za. 

Rem. — These verbs may also form the imperative, second person, by 
means of the auxiliary ma, as in the case of regular verbs ; thus, ma u 
ye; ma u ze. (§224., 1., d.) 

§ 314. 1. Some monosyllabic verbs are irregular also, in that 
the a of the auxiliary, pronoun, or negative, immediately pre- 
ceding, is changed to e. This may come from the restoration 
and coalescence of an obsolete initial i of the verb with final 
a of the j)i'eceding word. Or it may come from the restoration 
of an obsolete initial 6, especially since verbs beginning with 
e are not uncommon, while there is scarcely more than one or 
two beginning with i in the whole language. On the first 
supposition the more proper mode of writing such words 
would be to unite the two ; thus, 

Beza {= ha iza) ; ba ngezi {= nga izi) ; but on the second, to elide the 
final vowel of the preceding word ; thus, 6' eza {= ba eza) ; ba ng' ezi 
{= nga ezi), like 5' enza, ba ng' enzi. It is more convenient, however, 
and, withal, attended with no difficulty, to write the e with the pre- 
ceding word ; thus, be za ; ba nge zi, just as it is more convenient to 
write ngi ponsu ku iva, than to write ngi pons' uku iva ; and a ngi zu 
ku tanda, instead of a 7igi z' uku tanda ; and ngi sandu kufika, instead 
of ngi sand' iikufika. 

2. Of this class of irregular verbs are the following, uha m^a, 
to stand; ithu mha, to dig; itl'u va^ to come, turn; iihu za^ 
to come ; ukii ziva, to hear ; thus, 

' Si ye ma,' we are standing ; ' be mba,' they dig ; ' ba ye za,' they are 
coming ; ' si ye zwa,' we hear ; ' a be mi,' they do not stand ; ' a ke zi,' 
he is not coming. 

Rem. — When uku za is used as an auxiliary to mark the correlative 
form of verbs, where it has the force of ihen, until, and in certain peri- 
phrastic negative forms, there is no change of a to e in the pronoun or 
other word before it ; thus, ' nga za nga bona ;' ' ba ze ba bonile ;' ' a 
ba zanga ba bone.' But when it is used as an auxiliary of the future 
tense, the preceding a is generally changed to e in the negative, though 
not in the affirmative ; thus, ' a be zu ku hamba,' they are not about to 
go ; ' amadoda a we zu ku fika,' the men are not about to arrive ; ' ba 
za ku hamba,' they are about to go ; ' amadoda a za ku fika,' the men 
are about to arrive. 

Observations. — Looking at these irregular verbs in the cognate dia- 
lects, we find the following forms :— 



IKREGULAR VERBS. 167 

1. Ukii ma : in the Setyuana, ' go ema,' to stand ; ' ba erne,' they 
stand; ' ba thla ema,' they shall stand. In the Kinika, ' ku ima,' to 
stand ; ' a imaya,' he standmg. In the Momenya, ' me kema,' I stand ; 
Ngola, 'ngemanu,' I stand ; Songo, 'ami nemana,' I stand ; Kiriman, 
' de imela,' I stand ; Nyamban, ' ne emile,' I stand. 

2. Vku mba : in the Kiswahili, ' ku timba,' to dig ; in the Kinika, 
' ku zimba ;' in the Sena and Tette, ' ku kumba ;' in the Mpongwe, ' go 
tumba.' 

3. Uku za: in the Kinika, ' ku za,' to come ; 'na za ' or ' mimi naza,' 
I come ; ' yunda ku za,' he shall come ; in the Kikamba, ' uka ;' Kipo- 
komo, ' za ;' Kihiau, ' issa ;' Sena and Tctte, ' ku dza ;' Kabenda, ' me 
kuiza,' — I come ; Oloma, ' mi ezi,' I come ; Mimboma,' ' ngi zidi,' I 
come ; Kasands, ' ngo isa,' I come ; so likewise in the Ngola, ' ngesa ;' 
Lubalo, ' nesa ;' Songo, ' ngi sam' and ' ami nesa.' 

4. Uku zwa: in the Setyuana, 'go uthlua,' to hear; ' ba uthlua,' 
they hear ; in the Inhambane, ' ku pua.' to hear ; Sofala, ' ko zwa ; 
Kikamba, ' ku iwa,' to hear ; ' na iwe,' let him hear ; Ebe, ' mi wo, I 
hear ; Goali, ' ma wuo,' I hear ; Basa, " mu wo,' I hear ; Opanda, ' ma 
wo ;' Pangela, ' nda yewa ;' Kiriman, ' de iwa ;' Niki, ' me dsuo ;' 
Kambali, ' mu wua.' 

§ 315. 1. The irregular verb uhu tyo^ to say, retains o as a 
terminating vowel tlirongLoiit all its forms, both of derivation 
and inflection, of mode and tense, affirmative and negative ; 
thus, uku tyono^ to speak together, with one another; ukii 
tyolOy to speak for; so in the negative, a ngi tyo^ I speak not ; 
the present perfect, ngi tyilo^ I have spoken ; the passive, hu 
tymoo, it is said ; potential, negative, a ngi nge tyo, I can not 
say; so in the past tense, the negative snffix nga changes a 
final to (9, as by attraction ; thus, a ngi tyongo^ I did not say. 

2. The irregular verbs ukwazi and uhu ti change final i to a 
in taking the negative suffix nga ; thus, a ng^ azanga, I did 
not know ; a ngi tanga^ I did not say. The passive, present, 
past, and future, of these verbs, is formed by suffixing iva ; 
thus, hwaziwa, it is known ; hu tiwa, it is said. Their other 
passive forms follow the general rule, changing I into w ; thus, 
ng^ aziwe from ng^ azile ; hu tiwe from hit tile. The impera- 
tive and telic subjunctive modes retain the final i in these 
verbs ; thus, 

'Ma ni ti,' say ye : 'ma s' azi,' let us know ; ' u si fundise s' azi,' 
teach us that we may know ; ' ni m fundise ukuba azi,' teach him that 
he may know. 

§ 316. The substantive verb, uhio ha^ to be, is conjugated 
regularly, except the imperative mode, which follows the rule 
for other monosyllabic verbs ; thus, yiht^ be (thou) ; yihani^ 
be ye. This verb, however, is seldom used in the present, in- 
dicative, except in the compound ubani {=^u-ba-7ii)^ he is 
what ! who ? The mere presence of a person or thing is ex- 
pressed by the use of hona, contracted ho ; thus, 

'U kona,' he (is) present; ' ba kona,' they (are) present ; ' zi kona 
izinkomo,' there are cattle present. 



Ibb lEEEGULAE VERBS. 

Eem. 1.— This omission of the verb of existence in the present tense, 
and as a mere cupola, is natural, and not uncommon in the primitive 
or more uncultivated state of a language, the force of it being found in 
the noun or pronoun. For as, on the one hand, the idea of existence 
can not be conceived by the mind, excej^t as it is connected with some 
object, so, on the other, the conception of any object must include or 
imply that of its existence. 

Rem. 2. — a. JBiit when more than ordinary stress is to be 
given to the idea of existence, as in the imperative mode, or in 
expressing a negative ; or when it is important to designate 
the relations of mode, as in the potential, or of time, as past or 
f ntnre, this verb, iiJcu ha, to be, is required and nsed ; thus, 

' Yiba nomsa kumi,' be merciful to me ; * ku nga ba iyo,' it may be 
it ; ' wa ba ngumuntu,' he was a person ; ' kwa ba ngabantu,' it was 
people. 

h. So in the use of adjectives as predicates, the verb ha is 
omitted in the present, indicative, but used in the other tenses 
and modes ; thus, 

* Ngi mkulu,' I (am) great ; ' nga be [ngi] mkulu,' I (was) great ; ' ngo 
ba mkulu,' or ' ngo ba ngi mkulu,' I will be great ; " ma ngi be mkulu,' 
let me be great ; ' ngi nga ba mkulu,' I may be great. 

e. Sometimes the verb tcku ya, to go, is used instead of uJcn 
ha, to point out the relation of time in examples like the fore- 
going ; thus, 

' Igama lake la ye li ngUfaku '; though ' la li ngUfaku ' would be the 
common, more classic form. 

Rem. 3. — a. In place of tiku ha, as a mere copula in the 
present tense, where the predicate is a noun specifying iden- 
tity, one of the euphonic copulative particles, y, ng, or lo, is 
often, though not always, used; thus, 

' Ku yinkomo,' it (is) a cow ; ' ku ngumuntu,' it is a person : ' ku 
wamadoda,' it is men ; ' ku umuti ' or ' ku wumuti,' it is a tree ; ' ku 
uboya,' it is wool. 

h. When the predicate consists of a pronoun, in which case 
the simple and conjunctive pronominal forms are often united, 
the euphonic copula, ng, y, or to, is often used in the same 
way as when the predicate is a noun ; thus, 

' Ku nguye,' it is he (' umuntu,' etc.) ; ' ku yiyo,' it is it (' inkomo,' 
etc.) ; ' ku ngawo,' it is they (* amadoda,' etc.). 

e. Sometimes the general pronoun i, simple form of the 
third class, singular, is joined with the conjunctive form of the 
pronoun of otlier classes according to the noun referred to, the 
two pronouns together becoming a predicate with, or Avithout, 
the euphonic copula y, or ng ; thus, 

' Ku yilo' or * ku ngilo,' it is it (' itole,' etc.); * ku yibo,' it is it 
('uboya,' etc.); ' ku yiso,' it is it ('isitelo,' etc.); ' ku izo,' it is they 
('izinto,' etc.") ; ' ku yiti,' it is we ; though i tina would be better. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 169 

d. Sometimes the deiinite form of the pronoun is nsed in- 
stead of the conjunctive, especially where emphasis or great 
precision is required ; thus, 

' I nguwona,' ' i wona,' or ' ku wona,' it is just it (' umuti,' etc.) ; ' ku 
yikoua,' it is it ('uku ma,' etc.); *i bona,' it is they (' abantu,' etc.); 
* ku itina,' it is we ourselves. 

e. Sometimes the simple and conjunctive forms are united 
and used as a predicate, without any euphonic copula ; thus, 

' Ku uye,' it is he (' umuntu,' etc.) ; ' ku lilo,' or ' i lilo,' it is it {' itole,' 
etc.) ; * ku lulo ' or ' i lulo,' it is it (* uluti,' etc.) ; ' ku ngimi,' it is I. 

Kem. 4. — a. In negative propositions as, ncji nga hi ho^ the 
consonant 1) is often dropped, and the vowel i coalescing with 
a in nga makes nge / thus, 

' Ngi nge ko,' I not being present ; ' sa be si nga bi ko,' contracted, 
' sa be si nge ko,' or ' sa si nge ko,' we were not present. 

J). In negative propositions, denying identity, the negative is 
generally expressed by a si, without any use being made of the 
substantive verb ; thus, 

'A si ngumuntu,' or ' a si 'niuntu,' it is not a person ; ' a si nguye,' or 
' a si ye,' or ' a suye,' it is not he ; ' a si yinkomo,' or • a si 'nkomo,' or 
' a sinkomo,' it is not a cjjw ; ' a si yiyo,' or ' a si yo,' or ' a siyo,' it is 
not it. This form of negative consists of the general pronoun i, third 
person, third class, singular, the negative a, and the euphonic s inserted 
to relieve the hiatus. The i (in si), the subject of the proposition, is 
sometimes omitted ; thus, ' a sumuntu ;' ' a suye ;' ' a siyo.' Here, uye 
and iyo (the simple and conjunctive forms of the pronoun, united) con- 
stitute the predicate ; but sometimes only the conjunctive form of the 
pronoun is used as predicate ; thus, ' a si ye ;' ' a si yo.' Sometimes 
the general pronoun ku constitutes the subject of the proposition, in- 
stead of I ; in which case, there being no hiatus between the negative a 
and the pronoun, the s is not required ; thus, ' a ku 'muntu ;' ' a ku 
'madoda ; ' a ku so tina,' it is not we ; ' a ku ngabo,' it is not they. 

Rem. 5. — This verb, uhu ha^ is often used with the preposi- 
tion na, with, in the sense of to Jiave^ to he loith, i. e., to he in 
possession of ; though here also, in the present, indicative, the 
verb is generally omitted ; thus, 

' Ba be nemali,' they had money ; ' ngi nabantu,' I have people. In 
the affirmative, the vowel a, of na, coalesces with the initial vowel of 
the noun; thus, 'ngi nemali' (= 'na-imali') ; 'si nomuti' (= ' na- 
umuti ') ; 'si namakaza ' (= ' na-amakaza '). 

But in the negative the na generally remains unchanged, 
the initial vowel of the noun being elided ; thus, 

'A ngi na 'mali,' I have no money ; ' a si na 'luto,' we have nothing ; 
' ba be be nga bi na 'lizwe,' contracted, ' ba be nge na 'lizwe,' they had 
no country. 

Sect. 7. — Defective Verhs. 

§ 317. 1. There appears to be but one defective verb in the 
Zulu language, viz., musa ', and this, signifying must not, 



170 ADVERBS. 

may, perhaps, be the causative form of rauha^ depart, since 
miisa., cause to depart^ jput away, miglit be thus derived by 
changing k into s, examples of whicii occur in some other 
verbs, as in vusa, from viika ; susa, from sukxt. 

2. But in the sense of uiust not, this verb 'rausa is used only 
in the present tense, imperative, addressing the second person ; 
and is generally followed by the infinitive ; thus, 

' Musa uku hamba,' you must not go, that is, put away going ; ' mu- 
sani uku vilapa,' ye must not be idle. 

3. It is sometimes used where the command or wish has ref- 
erence to the third person ; though in this case musa is 
addressed, or considered as addressed, to a person, or persons, 
present, while the second verb takes a personal form instead 
of the infinitive ; thus, 

' Musa ba nga hambi,' they must not go, or, you must not let them 
go ; ' musa zi nga hambi izinkomo,' the cattle must not go, or, let not 
the cattle go. 

4. This form is sometimes used in the second person ; thus, 

' Musa u nga hambi,' you must not go ; ' musani ni nga hambi,' ye 
must not go. 



CHAPTER VI. 

ADVERBS. 

§ 318. In the Zulu language the necessity for some adverbs 
is superseded by the use of certain verbs, which involve the 
force of what is often expressed by the use of an adverb in 
some other languages ; thus, hmga, be right, good, do well ; 
andulela, go before, be first ; sandu, sandii hu fika, arrive re- 
cently ; ponsa or citya, ngi jponsu hu fa, I am ahnost dead, I 
scarcely escape dying ; nga citya leu wa, I nearly fell ; tyetya 
u huye, return quickly, i. e., make haste and return ; huya lo 
funds, read again, i. e., return and read. 

§ 319. Most of the adverbs in the Isizulu, like many in other 
languages, are derived or compounded from other words : — 

1. From a verb ; as, Jcusasa, early, from uhu sa, to dawn, 
be light, clear ; k'uqala, first ; qede, after, wdien ; ftma, lest. 

2. From a noun ; as, numdulo, first, and endulo, anciently, 
from indtdo, antiquity, and this, from the verb andula, be 
first ; endhle, abroad, in the field ; amanga, no, falsely ; ira- 
hata, indeed ; emini, in the day time, open day, midday ; 
e?}iuva, emva, or enweni, from an obsolete noun, umuva, the 
rear, after, and this noun from the verb uhu va, to come, be 
formed, appear, follow after, abound. 



ADVERBS. 171 

3. From an adjective ; as, 

Kakulu, greatly ; kanye, once ; kaningi, often, frequently. 

4. From a pronoun ; as, 

Kona, then, there ; loku, whereas, since, when ; kaloku, now. 

5. From a preposition and a noun ; as, ngeraihla {nga- 
imihla), daily, /. ^., by days ; ngamandlila (ngct-amanclhla), 
powerfully ; ngamaboimi {nga-arnahomu)^ and ngesihowM {nga- 
isibomu^ designedly ; nmnlila {na-umJila)^ to-day. 

6. From a noun and an adjective ; as, endawonye^ together, 
in one place, from indao-inye ; ^nyakenye^ a year ago, last 
year, from inyaka-inye / umhlaumhi^ or, plural, imihlairnbi^ 
perhaps, from timhla^ da}^, and xtmhi^ from nibili, two, sec- 
ondary ; hence, another, some, some day or other ; katisimhe^ 
perhaps, probably, from isihati^ time, and simhe^ and this, too, 
from mhili^ a secondary, i. 6., some other time. 

7. From a preposition and an adjective ; as, kuhle {hu-Jde)^ 
well ; kuningi^ plentifully ; lutkidu (gen. ka-kiihi)^ greatly. 

8. From a preposition and an adverb ; as, nakanye, never ; 
ngapi f where % whither \ 

9. Some adverbs and a few prepositions are derived from 
nouns, and likewise from adjectives, by prefixing the particle 
j9«, which corresponds nearly to the English prefix he^ in he-fore^ 
he-neath ; as in, pandhle \])a^endlde\ wdthout, outside ; jpe- 
zulu (joa-iztiht), above ; pakati {jpa-kati^ the root of umkati, 
space, isikati, time), within ; pamhili and pamhi {pa-mhili), 
before, in front, beyond ; pansi, beneath ; pesheya^ beyond 
(the river) ; pakade^ for a long time. 

Rem. 1. — Any adjective may be used adverbially, by prefixing the 
particle ka ; thus cle, long, kacle, far ; kulu, great, kakulu, greatly. 

Rem. 2. — The nga which is often coupled with an adverb, or a prepo- 
sition, serves sometimes as a mere expletive, and sometimes for empha- 
sis to strengthen the force of the following word. 

Rem. 3. — Umhlcmmhi, plural, imihlaimhi, belongs to the 
Kafir or Xosa dialect, while its synonym katisiinbe belongs to 
the Isizulu. (See above, 6.) 

Rem. 4. — a. The paragogic particle ke is an expletive suffix, carrying 
the accent forward to the final syllable of the word to which it is sub- 
joined, and having the force of accordingly, then, thus, noiv, therefore ; 
as, hambake, go then. (§214., Rem. 2.) 

h. The particles nje and ho are also often used us expletives 
after other words, though rarely subjoined ; — the former, nje^ 
in the sense of thtcs^ so, merely, noio, just, simply for the sake 
of it ; thus, ngi ya haiydja nje, I just go, I am walking just 
for the sake of walking ; — the latter, ho, in the sense of indeed, 
of course, then, there ; thus, qaho, no indeed; sukani ho, get 
away there. 



172 



TIME AND PLACE ADVERBS. 



§ 320. Adverbs may be divided into several classes, of which 
the principal are the following : — 



I. Adverhs of Time. 

Emini, loc. c. of imini, day, 

Endnlo, loc. c. of indnlo, antiquity, 

Futi, 

Intambama, noun, 

Izolo, noun, 

Kade, ka-de, 

Kaloku, ka-loku, 

Kaloku nje, 

Kamsinyane, ka-masinyane, 

Kaningi, ka-ningi, 

Kanye, kunye, okanye, ka-nye, etc., 

Ko, 

Kona, ko-na, 

Konje, ko-nje, 

Kupela, V. uku pela, to end, 

Kusasa, v. uku-sa-sa, yet dawning, 

Kusihlwa, v. sa-ihlwa, yet declining, 

Kutangi, 

Kuqala, v. uku qala, to begin, 

Loku, la-uku, 

Mandulo, n. plural, amandulo, 

Manje, ma-nje or -anje, 

Masinyane, nia-sinyane, 

Nakanye, na-kanye, 

JSFamhla, na-umhla, with day, 

Napakade, 

Ngemihla, nga-imihla, by days, 

Ngomso, nga-umso, dawning, 

Nxa, n. inxa, side, sake, cause, 

Pakade, pa-kade, 

Qede, v. uku qeda, to finish, 

II. Adverhs of Place. 

Apa, or lapa, a- or la- pa, 

Apo, or lapo, a- or la- po, 

Apaya, or lapaya, apa- or lapa- ya, 

Eduze, 

Emva, loc. c. of obs. n. umva, rear, 

Endawonye, n. and adj. indao-inye, 

Endhle, loc. c. of n. indhle, field, 

Ezansi, loc. c. of obs. n. izansi, sand, 

Katyana, dim. of kati, umkati, space, 

Ko, or kona, 



At mid-day. 

in ancient time. 

again, often. 

towards evening. 

yesterday. 

long ago, just now. 

now. 

just now\ 

immediately. 

much, often. 

once, together. 

present, here, there. 

now, then, when. 

just now, speedily. 

finally. 

early dawn. 

dusk of evening. 

day before yesterday 

first. 

then, when, since. 

at first. 

this moment. 

soon, speedily. 

decidedly, never. 

to-day. 

ever. 

daily. 

to-morrow. 

when, if. 

long time. 

after, w^hen. 



Here, 
there, 
yonder, 
near. 

behind, after, 
together, 
out, abroad, 
below, 
distant, far. 
here, there. 



MANNER AND INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS. 



173 



Kona lap a, 

Kona lapo, 

Kude, kii-de, 

Kunye, or kanye, 

Knfupi, kii-fiipi, short, 

Malungana, ma-hmgana, v. 

Neno, na-enii, 

liga lapa, 

Nga lapo, 

Nganeno, nga-neno, 

Nganxanye, nga-inxa inye, 

Pakati, pa-kati, iiinkati, space, 

Pambili, pa-nibili, 

Fandhle, pa-endlile, in the field, 

Pansi, pa-nsi, or -ansi, sand, 

Pezulu, pa-izulu, heaven, 

III. Adverbs of Manner. 

Imbala, n. from bala, make clear, 

Impela, n. from ukii pela, to end, 

Kahle, or kiihle, ka- or ku -hie, nice, 

Kaknlu, ka-kuhi, great, 

Kabi, or kubi, ka- or ku -bi, bad, 

Karabe, ka-mbe, 

Kanjalo, ka-njalo, 

Kangaka, ka-ngaka, 

Ke, nku ka, to reach, 

Nja, nje, 

Njalo, nja-lo, 

Njenga, nje-nga, 

Njengalokii, njenga-loku, 

Ngaka, nga-ka, 

Kgesibomu, or ngamabomu, 

Ze, 

Qata, 

lY. Interrogative Adverhs. 

Ini na? i-, it, -ni, what? -na = ? 

Kanjani na ? ka-njani na ? 

Kangakanani na ? 

]N"a? 

I^jani na ? nja-ni-na ? 

Ngani na? ngani-na ? 

Ngakanani na ? nga-ka-na-ni-na ? 

Nini na ? ni-ni-na ? 

Pi na 1 or ngapi na ? 

Po ? poge ? ini po ? po ini na ? 



just here, 
just there, 
far, far away, 
together, 
shortly, near, 
oj^posite to, near, 
this side (of). 
here, this way. 
there, that way. 
on this side, 
partially, aside, 
in the midst, within, 
before, beyond, 
without, abroad, 
down, below. 
up, above. 



Indeed, truly. 

verily, utterly. 

well, nicely. 

greatly, very, esj^ecially. 

bad, poorly. 

of course, naturally. 

so, again, likewise. 

so much, thus, so. 

accordingly, therefore. 

thus, so, just so. 

so, thus, and so on. 

accordingly, like as. 

like unto, just as. 

such, so much. 

on purpose, willfully. 

empty, naked, vain. 

quite, wholly. 



What ? why ? whether ? 
how ? like what ? 
how much? 
inter, particle = ? 
like what ? how ? 
with what ? why ? 
how much ? 
when ? 

where ? whither ? 
why ? why then ? 



174 



NUMERAL AND VARIOUS KINDS OF ADVERBS. 



Y. Niimeral Adverhs. 



Kanye, ka-nye, one, 
Kabili, ka-bili, two, 


Once, 
twice. 


Katatu, 


thrice. 


Kane, 


four times. 


Kahlanu, or kwa 'sihlanu, 


five times. 


Katatisitupa, or kwa 'situpa, 
Kwa sikombisa, 


six times, 
seven times. 


Kwa shiyangalombili, 
Kwa shiyagalolunye, 
Kwa yishumi. 


eight times, 
nine times, 
ten times. 


Kwa yikulu. 


a hundred times. 


Kwa yinkulungwane. 


a thousand times. 


YI. Various hinds of Adverbs. 




Ai, or hai. 


No. 


Aitye, ai-tye, 

Amanga, n. pi. from uku unga, to be- 
guile, 
Ehe, 
Ewe, 


not so, no. 

not so, it's false. 
yes. 

yes. 


Iji, or ijile, i, he, and jila, nod, 

Imihlaimbi, imihla-imbi, 

Isibili, 

Ingabe, i, it, -nga, may, -be, be, 

Kanti, ka, -nti, or -anti, the contrary. 


yes, truly, 
perhaps, 
truly, very, 
perhaps, 
whereas, but. 


Katisimbe, isikati-esimbe, 
Kodwa, ka-udwa. 


perhaps, probably 
only, but. 


Kumbe, ku-mbe, 

Pela, V. uku pela, to conclude. 


probably, 
then, of course. 


Umhlaumbi, umhla-umbi, 
Yebo, ye-bo, 
ca, or cabo, 


perhaps. 
yes, indeed ! 
no. 


qa, or qabo, 


no. 



§ 321. There is a class of words in the Zulu language which 
might be called Pronominal Adverbs, or Pronomino-Locative 
Adverbs, since they are composed in part of pronouns, and are 
used to point out the locality of a person or thing, as being 
here, or there, or there yonder ; thus, 

Nangu, here he is ; nango, there he is ; nanguya, there he is in the 
distance. 

§ 322. These pronominal adverbs consist of the preposition 
na, and a pronoun of the simple form, together, in most cases, 
with some epenthetic euphonic medial, as ng, ni, n, ns, or nt / 
thus, 



PEOI^JOMINO LOCATIVE ADVERBS. 



175 



Nangu {=na-ng-u), even he, here he is: namha (= na-m-ba), even 
they, here they are. Here the office of ng and m is merely to soften 
and faciUtate the combination na-ii, and na-ba, in accordance with 
principles already stated. (i^§ 24., 32., 35.) 

Rem. 1. — Pronominal adverbs for nouns of the fourth class require 
no euphonic medial, since the two essential elements are easily united 
and enunciated without the intervention of any other sound ; thus, 
nasi [isibuko), here it is (the glass) ; nazi {izibuko), here they are (the 
glasses). Sometimes, but not always, the pronominal adverb of the 
eighth class employs a medial n before the k ; thus, iianku or naku 
(iikuna), here it is (rain). When the incipient of the noun contains the 
n, this sound is generally introduced, as by attraction, into the pro- 
nominal adverb ; thus, nanzi (iziukomo), here they are (cattle). (§36.) 

Rem. 2, — In the pronominal adverb for nouns of the second class, 
plural, we have, sometimes, the euphonic medial ng ; but more fre- 
quently, in pure Zulu, we have the sharper corresponding equivalent 
nk ; thus, nanga or nanka (mnadoda), here they are (the men). And in 
the singular of the sixth class we sometimes hear nanku instead of the 
softer and more usual nangu (umuti), here it is (the tree, or medicine, 
etc.). 

Rem. 3. — In the singular of the third class, and in the plural of the 
sixth, we have the medial ns ; thus, nansi {inkomo), here it is (the 
cow) ; nansi (imiti), here they are (the trees). In the singular of the 
second and fifth classes, we have the medial nt, and the pronouns i 
and u ; thus, nanti (itole), here it is ; nantu (uti), here it is ; though in 
the Xosa dialect, we find nali and nalu. 

§ 323. These pronominal adverbs j)ut on different forms not 
only to accord with the number and class of the noun referred 
to, but to express, in some measure, also the comparative near- 
ness or distance of the person or thing spoken of ; thus, 

Nangu, here he is ; nango, there iW is ; nanguya, there he is in the 
distance ; so, namba, nambo, nambaya. 

§ 324. The common form of these words, with the corres- 
ponding import, may be seen by a glance at the following — 

Table of Pronomino-Locative Adverbs. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL, 



Here he. 


There he. 


Yonder 


' 




^ 


she, or 


she, or 


he, siie, or 


Here 


There 


Yonder 


it is. 


it is. 


it is. 


they are. 


they are. 


they are. 


1 Nangu, 


nango. 


nanguya ; 


namba. 


nambo, 


nambaya. 


2 Nanti, 


nanto, 


nantiya ; 


nanka, 


nanko. 


nankaya. 


3 Nansi, 


nanso, 


nansiya ; 


nanzi, 


nanzo. 


nanziya. 


4 Nasi, 


naso. 


nasiya ; 


nazi, 


nazo. 


naziya. 


5 Nantu. 


nanto. 


nantuya ; 


nazi, 


nazo. 


naziya. 


6 Nangu, 


nango, 


nanguya ; 


nansi. 


nanso, 


nansiya. 


7 Nambu, 


nambo, 


nambuya ; 


nambu. 


nambo. 


nambuya. 


8 Naku, 


nako. 


nakuya ; 


naku. 


nako, 


nakuya. 



§ 325. 1. For the iirst and second person, singular, u.se is 
sometimes made of the forms used for the third person, singu- 
lar, first class ; thus, 

Nangu (mina), here I am ; nangu (wena), here thou art. And for the 
first and second person, plural, use is sometimes made of the forms 
used for the third person, plural, first class ; thus, namba (Una), here 
we are ; nambo {nina), there ye are. 



176 PREPOSITIONS. 

2. But instead of these forms for the first and second per- 
sons, the pronouns are often used with the adverbs lapa^ lapo^ 
and lapaya / thus, 

Ngi lapa, here I am ; ni lapo. there ye are. Or, instead of the ad- 
verb lapa, we may have the preposition na, w^ith the conjunctive form 
of the required pronoun ; thus, u nami, thou (art here) with me ; ngi 
nenu, I (am here) with you. 

Rem. — The pronouns of the third person are sometimes used like 
those of the first and second, with tlie adverbs lapa, lapo, and lapaya; 
thus, ba lapa, they are here ; ba lapo, they are there. 



CHAPTER VIL 
PREPOSITIONS. 

§ 326. 1. In the Isizuhi, as in many other languages, espe- 
cially among the African dialects, the same word appears, 
according to its use and connection, sometimes as an adverb, 
and sometimes as a pi'eposition, or as a conjunction. 

2. Several words, which are used in the twofold capacity of 
an adverb and a preposition, when they serve as the latter, are 
always followed by another, as kiva, na ; thus, 

Pezu kwomuti {= kwa-umuti), upon the tree : eduze nentaba {= na- 
intaba), near the mountain. 

Eem. 1. — The preposition kwa seems to be a compound of the preposi- 
tion ku and the genitive particle a,, the elements of which are still 
retained in their original separate use in the case of proper nouns, the 
names of persons ; thus, pambi ku ka 'Faku {a hardened by k), before 
Faku. 

Rem. 2. — This twofold use of prepositions is not peculiar to the Isi- 
zulu : neither is the second so superfluous as some might at first sup- 
pose. The same, in substance, may be seen in such English words and 
phrases as up-on, m-to, with-in, near to, near by, before {= by-fore. 
And the force of each preposition may generally be seen in such Zulu 
phrases as, eduze nentaba, = near with, near by, or close to the moun- 
tain ; pezu kwomuti, = up on, or up to the tree ; pambi ku ka ''Faku, = 
opposite to, or in the presence of Faku. 

Rem. 3.— The principal preposition is often preceded by nga, which 
may be used, as in case of the adverbs, not only for euphony, or as an 
expletive, but also to modify or strengthen the preposition which it 
precedes ; thus, pezu, above ; nga pezu, over above ; pansi, below ; nga 
pansi, down below. 

§ 327. Most of the Zulu prepositions'^ are contained in the 
following list : — 

* Bantu languages have but few prepositions. Their place is often 
supplied by the form of the verb. In Swahili we find hardly moi'e 
than half a dozen. Na, signifying a7id, with, by, is common. In Yao 
we find na, ne, ni, no, nu, signifying 'with,' 'by ;' k2(, 'at ;' pa, 'at :' 
pakati pa, ' among,' ' between ;' pansi pa, 'under.' In the Nyamwezi 
na signifies ' and ;' ku, ' at.' The Kimbundu uses ni in the sense of 
' and,' ' with.' The Mpongwe, Benga, Setyuana and other languages 
use na, ni, n' in the same way to signify ' and,' ' with,' ' for,' ' by.' 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



177 



Ednze (na-), 

Emva (kwa-), 

Enhla (na- or kwa-), 

Ezansi (na- or kwa-), 

Ka (^also ba, etc., see § 115.), 

Ku, 

Kwa, 

Mahmgana (na-), 

ISTa, 

Nga, 

Nganeno (kwa-). 



Ngenxa (ya- or 
Pakati (kwa-), 
Pambi (kwa-), 
Pansi (kwa-), 
Pandlile (kwa-), 
Peslieya (kwa-); 
Pezu (kwa-). 



nga-), 



Near. 

behind. 

up, inland. 

beneath. 

of. 

to, from, with. 

to, from, in, at. 

opposite. 

with. 

about, for. 

this side of. 

on account of., 

within. 

before. 

under. 

without. 

beyond. 

upon. 



§ 328. The place of several prepositions which are common 
in the English, and other languages, is supplied in the Tsizulu 
by the use of the locative case ; thus, 

U sezinJcomeni, he is with or among the cattle ; ba ya emfuleni, they 
went to the river ; ha semfuleni, they are at the river. 

§ 329. In addition to those adverbs which are given as prep- 
ositions also, in the above list, we might, perhaps, name other 
words, with equal propriety, such as kude, hufujpi^ and ha- 
tyana ; unless they are to be counted as adjectives in such 
phrases as, 

I kude naye, it is far from him ; ba kude kumi, they are far from me ; 
u kufupi nabo, thou art near to them. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

§ 330. The number of conjunctions in the Zulu language is 
not large. The people, like all "uneducated tribes, incline to 
the use of short sentences, and to independent phrases. The 
relation of one proposition, or of one phrase, to another, often 
depends more upon the general construction, than upon any 
single word of a conjunctive character. (§ 221., 3.) 

§ 331. The words most frequently used as conjunctions are 
the following : — 

12 



178 INTERJECTIONS. 


Funa (uku funa, to want), 


Lest. 


Kandu, 


in order that, then. 


Kanti, 


but, yet, whereas. 


Kodwa, 


but, only. 


Na, 


and, also, both. 


]^gako (nga-oko, for that), 


therefore. 


]N'gokuba (nga-ukn ba), 


for, because. 


JN'^gokuma (nga—nku ma). 


for, because. 


IN^jengokuba (nje-nga-uku ba). 


as. 


]^oko (na-oko, with that), 


nevertheless. 


]^oma (na-iima, and if). 


even if, though. 


Ukuba (uku ba, to be). 


that, if, for. 


[Jknma (ukn ma, to stand), 


that, if, for. 


Ukuze (nkii za, to come). 


that, till. 


TJtna (uku raa, to stand). 


if, that. 



Umhlaumbi (umhla-umbi, § 319., 6.), or, perhaps. 

§ 332. Precise, distinctive words, corresjDonding to what are 
sometimes called disjunctive conjunctions, as, 6>r, nor^ either^ 
neither^ — do not exist in the language. Their j^lace is some- 
times supplied by na^ nohuba^ or tcmhlaumbi j but more fre- 
quently the force of these words is diffused, as it were, 
throughout the sentence ; thus. 

He or I will assist you = yena u ya ku Jcu siza uma u nga sa siztvanga 
imina, i. e. . he will help you were you not still helped by myself ; John 
or James or Faku intends to g;o = uma ku nge stye Vyohane, ku nge 
stye Uyamese, TJfaku u ti u ya ku hamha ; he might not read nor walk 
nor work = a nge ze a funda a nge hambe a nge sebenze. But gram- 
matical points of this kind belong more properly to Syntax. 



CHAPTER IX. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

§ 333. 1. Like most of the African dialects, the Isizulu 
abounds in exclamations. Some of these are of a profane 
character, as, Tyaka, Dingan^ — names of deceased Zulu chiefs. 
Some are always construed with the verb ulcu ti^ as, tu^ d%i^ or 
di ; twi ; nya^ — the exact meaning of which depends upon 
-the connection in which they are used, but the general design of 
which is to give intensity to whatever word or sentence they 
are attached to ; thus, 

Tulani ni ti du ! be perfectly silent ; umuti u lungile u te twi ! the 
tree is perfectly straight. 

2. Many of the exclamations in Isizulu are onomatopoetic, 
and generally accompanied with some significant gesticulation 
of the hands or body, or exj^ression of the countenance. 



DEFINITIONS AND EEMARKS. 179 

3. Some of the greatest songs of praise, which the natives 
sing in honor of the dead — the '' aniahlozi," or departed heroes 
— consist of nothing but exclamations ; sometimes a single 
somid repeated over and over again, as, tyi^ tyi, tyi^ etc. One 
of the greatest songs which Dingane and his men used to sing 
to the shades consisted of nothing but a series of vowel sounds, 
as — a, 6>, 0^ ?*, <?, <?, <2, 6>, etc., uttered or sung with diverse slides 
and with variations upon the musical scale. 

§ 334. Most of the interjections which are in general use are 
included in the following list : — 



Au, 






Oh! alas! 


E, 






O! eigh! 


Ehe; he, 






right ! just so ! 


Halala, 






hail ! welcome ! 


Ija; liija. 






pshaw ! away ! 


Mame ; mamo. 






alas ! dear me ! 


Maye ; mai. 






alas ! awful ! 


Mi, 






attention ! 


Nci; nxi. 






how -sad ! 


We, 






ho! behold! 


\ ebo. 






indeed ! 


leti, plural, bay 


eti, 




hail ! glory ! 


X ; xa ; xe, 






fie! tush! 


PART 


IIL- 


-SYNTAX. 


CHAPTER I. 





PROPOSITIOKS AND SENTENCES. 

Sect. 1. — Definitions and Remarks. 

§ 335. Syntax is that part of grammar which treats of the 
arrangement and combination of words in propositions and 
sentences, discussing and exhibiting the rules, and pointing out 
the manner in which the several parts of S]3eech are connected 
for the purpose of expressing all the different varieties of 
thought and feeling of which the mind is capable. 

Rem.— In discussing the doctrine of syntax, tlie only proper method 
is to develop the laws of the language in accordance with the opera- 
tions of that mind which has imposed them. At the same time it is 
doubtless true, that any essential deviation from the method and ter- 
minology in general use, and any considerable attention to the theo- 
retical part of the subject, would be inconvenient, if not discouraging, 
to those who are not familiar with the truly scientific and philosoph- 
ical works of Becker and others of that class. . 

§ 336. The plan proposed for the following pages is to no- 
tice, first, the different parts and kinds of the simple jprojposi- 
tion^ together with the methods by which each member may 



180 DEFINITIONS AND KEMARKS. 

be expanded ; also the character of the compound sentence^ or 
the manner in which one proposition or sentence may be re- 
lated and joined to another; then exhibit the minuter points 
of construction^ the relations and offices of words as arranged 
in a sentence, taking up each part of speech in the order most 
■Qsuallj followed ; and, finally, to close this part of the gram- 
mar with a few remarks on the collocation of words. 

§ 337. The design of language is to represent the operations 
of the human mind, its thoughts and feelings; and since these 
are highly diversified, and often complicated, the expression of 
them must give rise to a great variety in the forms of proposi- 
tions and sentences. And yet they may all be reduced to the 
simple fact that something is affirmed of something. Hence 
the essential parts of every proposition, and of every sentence, 
are two, the subject and its predicate. The subject is that of 
which something is affirmed ; and the predicate that which 
contains the affirmation ; thus, 

In the proposition ngi tanda. the word 7igi, I, is the subject, and the 
verb, tanda, love, is the predicate. A combination of this kind is one 
of the most original and simple of which we can have a conception. It 
is often termed a proposition, and " serves as a nucleus around which 
the most complicated sentence may crystallize." Other words, or parts 
of a sentence, are termed adjuncts. 

Rem. 1. — The relation between subject and predicate, or the union of 
the latter to the former, is denoted, sometimes by a modification of the 
predicate, as, intaba mkiilu, a mountain is large ; sometimes by a kind 
of euphonic copula, as, ku yinto, it is a thing ; and sometimes by a sep- 
arate relational or form word, as, abantu ba ya hamba, the people they 
do go, or they are going. 

Rem. 2.— The relational or form word often acts as principal, or at- 
tains to the rank of substitute, being used, sometimes as subject, and 
sometimes as predicate. Thus, in the proposition u ngowami, thou art 
mine, owami is predicated of the subject u, while ng serves as euphonic 
copula between the two. So in the proposition ba ya hamba, they are 
going, the pronoun ba represents the noun abantu, and forms the sub- 
ject of the predicate ya hamba. 

§ 338. Two or more thoughts may be so combined as to 
make but one ; and each member of a sentence may be modi- 
fied and expanded into a thought, the original nucleus remain- 
ing the same. Hence we have two kinds of sentences, the 
simple and the compound. 

1. A s'unjjle sentence consists of one proposition ; as, 

Ma si hambe, let us go ; ngi ya Jcu fika ngomso, I shall arrive to- 
morrow. 

2. A compound sentence consists of two or more proposi- 
tions connected together ; and the propositions of which it is 
composed are called members or clauses ; thus, 

Si nga z' enza lezi 'zinto tina ngokwetu, uma si zamazama, we can do 
these things ourselves, if we try; abantu aba nge na ^sineke a ba sizeki, 
people who have no thought do not prosper. 



SIMPLE PROPOSITIONS. 181 

Sect. 2. — Simple Propositions. 

g 339. One of the simplest kinds of propositions is that which 
merely affirms the existence of something. A proposition of 
this kind mnst also be one of the first in the order of nature, 
since the human mind must be cognizant of the existence of a 
thing before it can note tlie manner in which that existence is 
manifested, or perceive what other attributes aside from mere 
existence may pertain to it. Existence, either absolute or rela- 
tive, is generally denoted, in the Zulu language, by one of the 
following methods : — 

1. a. Simple absolute existence is affirmed by the use of the 
particle Z'6>, or hona / thus, 

Ngi kona, I (am) present ; ba kona, they (are) present. 

h. The negative of existence is denoted by the use of the 
negative «, nga or nge, and the above word Jco, or l'07ia ; thus, 

A ha ko, they are not present ; a i ko into, there is not anything ; a 
wa ko amanzi, there is no water. 

2. The predication of existence with some reference to near- 
ness in 23lace, is generally made by the use of na, or na and ya, 
with a pronoun, either radical or oblique, in the sense of here 
it is, there it is, etc. (see § 324.) ; thus, 

Nangu. here he is ; nango, there he is ; nanguya, there he is yonder. 

3. a. When the mode or time of existence requires to be 
particularly specified, the substantive verb tiJcu da, to be, i 
used, and inflected like other similar (irregular) verbs ; thus, 

In the imperative, yiba nomusa, be with mercy, i.e., be merciful ; 
ica ba kona, he was present ; ku nge be, it could not be. 

h. The verb nJcu ha is sometimes used also in the present in- 
dicative, more especially in the negative form, with ko, to 
indicate simple existence or non-existence ; thus, 

Ukiibako ku ka Yesu Umsindisi, the existence of Jesus the Saviour: a 
ka bi ko, for a ka ko, he is not present ; ku nga bi ko, it does not exist, 
or it not existing. 

§ 340. Another of the simplest kinds of propositions in the 
Isizulu is that which merely affirms or denies identity. 

1. a. The most emphatic affirmation of identity is made by 
using the simple form of the pronoun as subject, and the de- 
finitive as predicate (see § 168.) ; thus, 

Uyena, he (is) he, or it is he himself ; u wena, thou (art) thyself, or it 
is you yourself. 

h. The subject may consist of the indefinite pronoun i, or 
JlU, and the predicate consist of the simple and definitive 
together, use being made of some euphonic copula where ease 
of enunciation requires it ; thus, 



182 SIMPLE PROPOSITIONS. 

Inguyena, or leu vguyena, it is he himself ; i nguwena, it is thou thy- 
self. 

c. Instead of tlie definitive, the conjunctive form of the pro- 
noun maj be used, either with or without the simple, as a 
predicate, in the affirmation of identity ; thus, 

U ye, u ngiiye, or i nguye, he is he, or it is he ; hu ngimi, or i ngimi, 
it is I ; I yo, or i yiyo, it is it ; i so, i yiso, or hu yiso, it is it. 

d. Sometimes tlie conjunctive form is used, not with tlie 
simple of its own class, but with the indefinite simple ?', it, 
which generally takes its cognate euphonic y ; thus, 

Ku yibo, kit yizo, Jcu yiwo, or i yibo, it is they ; ku ngilo, ku yilo, ku 
yiso, or i yilo, it is it. (§ 169.) 

2. a. The negative of identity is expressed by the negative 
<3^ before the subject nominative, generally /, the full distinct 
form of the pronoun being preserved, and the hiatus pre- 
vented, by inserting the euphonic s / thus, 

A si yena, a si ye. or a si nguye, it is not he ; a si wona (amadoda,) a 
si wo, or a si ngctico, it is not they ; a si lona {Hole), a si lo, or a si 
yilo, it is not it. (| 169., d.) 

h. When there would be no hiatus between the negative a 
and the pronoun, as when the general pronoun k^c is used in- 
stead of i {= cr ku), the euphonic 6' is not required ; as in, 

A ku nguye, it is not he ; a ku ngimi, it is not I. But the euphonic s 
may be used as a copula [i.e., between the subject nominative and 
predicate nominative), instead of ng or y ; thus, a ku siko, a ku siyo, a 
ku silo, it is not it ; a ba sibo, a zi sizo, they are not they, or these are 
not the same. 

G. When the euphonic s is used as a euphonic copula, it is 
sometimes omitted between tlie negative a and the predicate 
i; thus, 

A i siyo, a i silo, it is not it. Or the euphonic s may be used, making 
a si siyo, a si silo, it is not it. And forms of this kind may be con- 
tracted by either dropping the subject, making, a siyo, a silo ; or, what 
is more frequent, by using only the conjunctive part of the predicate 
pronoun (= a si yo, a si lo), in which case it is not uncommon to add 
the definitive pronoun {= a si yo yona, a si lo lona, or) ; thus, a siyo 
yona, a silo lona, it is not it itself, or it is not the very same. 

d. When the pronoun ku is used as the subject, and s serves 
as a euphonic copula, in such examples as a ku siyo yona, a ku 
silo lona, a ku siko lona., the first part of the predicate, as, 
siyo, silo, siko, is contracted into so, making, 

A ku so yona, a ku so lona, a kirso kona, it is not the same. So 
other examples, as. a ku siko wena, contracted a ku so ivena, it is not 
thou ; a ku siko Una, contracted a ku so Una, it is not we. 

Rem.— From the foregoing remarks and illustrations respecting the 
direct forms of denying identity, it is easy to see what must be the in- 
direct, as in accessory clauses ; thus, ku nge nguye, it not being he ; i 
nge siyo, ku nge silo, it not being it ; / nge yibo, i nge yizo, it not being 
they ; ku nge so wena, ku nge so Una, it not being thou, it not being we. 



SIMPLE PROPOSITIONS. 183 

§ 341. Another kind of simple proposition is that in which 
some inherent attribute of the subject is specified by the pred- 
icate. This specification may be made by a noun, by an adjec- 
tive, or by a nenter verb. 

§ 31:2. I. A noun or pronoun is sometimes specified or 
described by the use of another noun as predicate. When a 
noun is thus described its mere existence is affirmed, or at least 
necessarily involved, in the description; hence use is made 
neither of the substantive verb as copula, nor of any particle 
significant of existence. Hence, 

1. The predicate noun is simply put in juxtaposition with 
the subject, some euphonic, in harmony with the noun's initial 
vowel, being generally employed (§ 35., 4., and Rem. 1.) ; thus, 

U yingane, you are a child ; u yinkosi, you are a king ; ii ivumhila, it 
is maize ; i wumsebenzi, it is work ; ha yisifazana, they are a company 
of women [i. e.. cowards) ; ba ngamadoda, they are men (z. e., heroes) ; 
iikukutala ku ngunina wenzuzo, industry is the mother of gain ; isineke 
si yinsika yemisebenzi, thought is the staple of work. 

2. Sometimes the predicate noun is merely placed in juxta- 
position with the nominal subject, without the use of any rela- 
tional word (direct pronominal subject), and without any 
euphonic copula ; thus, 

Inkosi igama layo Uotu, the name of the king is Otu ; izwe letu Ipote 
Natal ibizo layo, Port Natal is the name of our country ; izilwane za 
kiti izilo nezimvitbu, our wild animals are tigers and sea-cows. 

3. The predicate noun is sometimes placed in juxtaposition 
with the pronominal subject without any euphonic copula. 
This use prevails most with nouns of the seventh and eighth 
classes, and also with the singular of the fifth and sixth classes ; 
thus, 

Ku ubuti, it is poison ; ku ukuma, it is a characteristic ; kii uluti, or 
ku uti, it is a rod. 

Rem.— The same is seen at times in other nouns ; as, ba abantu (for 
ba ngabantu), they are people ; ku inkomo (for ku yinkomo), it is a cow ; 
ku umuntu (for ku ngumuntu), it is a person. 

4. Sometimes we find the predicate and its euphonic copula 
without any expressed nominative, either direct or indirect ; 
thus, 

Ngubani na 9 {for u ngubani, or ku ngubani na ?) who is it? wumda- 
buko wa kona, it is the custom of that place ; ivumsebenzi icabo, it is 
their work ; yinto abe funda ngayo, it is a thing about which they 
learn. 

§ 343. The usual form of the negative for propositions in 
which one noun is predicated of another, as in the foregoing 
paragraph, consists in placing the negative a or lea before the 
affirmative form ; thus. 



184 SIMPLE PROPOSITIONS. 

A ku ngumuntu, it is not a person ; a ku ngabantu, or a ku 'haiitu, it 
is not people ; a ku yinkomo, a i yinkomo, or a yi yinkomo, it is not a 
cow. 

Rem. 1. — When the subject consists of the indefinite pronoun i, the 
hardness occurring between the negative a. and this pronoun, is some- 
times relieved by the use of the euphonic s instead of y ; thus, a si yin- 
komo, or a si 'nkomo, it is not a cow ; a si ngumuntu, or a si ^munto, it 
is not a person ; a si Hiito, it is nothing. 

Rem. 2. — In accessory clauses the negative particle follows the pro- 
nominal subject ; thus, ku nge nguye umuntu, ku nge so ^miintu, or ku 
nge 'muntu, it not being a person. (§ 397., 2., Rem.). 

§ 344. II. There i? a large class of simple propositions in 
which a noun or pronoun is specified by the use of an adjective 
as predicate. And as before remarked in respect to the use of 
a noun as predicate, so here also, since the existence of the 
subject is afiirmed when it becomes specified by an adjective, 
no use is made of any verb or particle significant of existence. 
The predicate adjective is generally put in juxtaposition with 
the subject, and always takes an inflection which accords both 
with the incipient of the noun which it specifies, and also with 
all those euphonic laws of the language which are applicable 
to the adjective ; thus, 

Inkomo inkulu, the cow (is) large ; umuti umkulu, the tree (is) large: 
isibopo sikulii, the band is large ; izinkomo zinkulu, the cattle are 
large ; imiti mikulu, the trees are large ; inkomo ihomvu, the cow is 
red ; umuti uhomvu, the tree is red. (§§ 24., 36., 130-132,, 135., 136. ; see 
also syntax of the adjective.) 

Rem. — An adjective taking the incipient of a noun, thus, umkulu, a 
great one ; abakulu, great ones, may be employed as a predicate in the 
same manner as a noun (§ 399.) ; thus, ngi ngumkulu, I am great, or I 
am a great one ; si iigahakulu, we are great, or we are great ones ; zi 
yizinkulu, they are great ones. Negative ; thus, a si ngabakulu, we 
are not great ones ; si nge ngabakulu, we not being great. 

§ 345. III. It is often the case that some inherent attribute 
or quality is ascribed to a noun or pronoun by means of an 
attributive verh^ wliich conveys the idea of existence under 
some kind of modification, and thus contains in itself both 
predicate and copula. The verbs thus employed belong chiefly, 
not wholly, to the subjective and deponent species (§§194., 
195.) ; thus, umtwana wami u ta?icIeJcile, my child is beloved, 
or lovable ; inkosi i sahekile, the king is terrible ; ha cunukele, 
they are oifended ; 7igi ya hhcpeJca, I am suffering ; 6??' citalcele, 
Ave are ruined. 

Rem. — A few other verbs are used in a similar manner (to specify a 
person or thing subjectively) ; thus, ku lungile, it is right ; ngi lambile, 
I am hungry ; ingubo yami i gugile, my blanket is old. 

§ 346. Still another kind, and one of the most common, of 
simple propositions, is that in which the subject is specified 
objectively, or in respect to an attribute contained in its mode 



MODIFIED SUBJECTS. 185 

of action. In propositions of tliis kind, tlie predicate is, for 
the most part, an active verb, either transitive or intransitive, 
the general sense of which is brought down, and limited to 
some particular, qualified bj some mode, or directed to some 
object; thus, ha hamha ngamandJda^ they went fast ; . 'i(?a 
tyona ehlatini, he hid in the bush ; ngifmia imali^ I w^ant 
money ; ngi iiikidu Tiuioe^ I am large to you (or larger than 
you). 

§ 3-^:7. The principal members (the subject and predicate) of 
a proposition may be restricted, explained, described, enlarged, 
or otherwise qualified, in a variety of ways, which give rise to 
the formation of compound sentences. Some of the principal 
of these ways will now be noticed under the heads of modified 
subject, and modified predicate. 



Sect. 3. — Modified Suhject. 

§ 348. The subject of a proposition may be modified in some 
manner, as by a noun, an adjective, or a pronoun, before any 
declaration is made concerning it. This modification may be 
made : — 

I. By a 7ioun — 

1. In the same case ; as when one noun is annexed to 
another for the sake of explanation or description ; thus, 

I kona iniiziki. inyamazana enkulu, here are antelopes, a large (kind 
of) game ; kicafika ahantu isifazana, there came people women. 

2. In tlie genitive case ; thus, 

Isitunzi somuntu si ya suka, the shade (ghost) of a man departs ; in- 
kosi yesizice sa kiti i ngUmusi, the chief of our tribe is Umusi. 

Rem. — The verbal noun or infinitive mode not only admits of the 
above construction, but it may also take a noun in the accusative, or 
an adverb, as complement ; thus, nansi imiti yokwaka umiizi, here are 
trees for building a kraal ; a iko indao yokulima kakulu, there is no 
place for ploughing much. Other words, as an adjective or a noun, 
used to modify the subject (or the predicate), may also take a comple- 
ment, or be themselves modified in various ways. 

§ 349. 11. The subject may be modified by an adjective ; 
thus, abantu abaningi ba vusiice, many people are concerned; 
aniasimu onhe a tyistoa^ all the gardens are dried up. 

Rem. — The adjective itself may be modified : — (a.) By an adverb ; 
thus, ' into embi kakulu i za ku fika ku lo 'muntu,' a very bad thing 
will come upon that man, (5.) By a noun or otherwise ; as, 'umbila u 
su mkulu ku nenkomo," maize is now more valuable than a cow. 

§ 350. III. The subject may be modified by a irronorm : — 
{a.) Possessive ; thus, hikonuj yatni i lahlekile, my cow is 
lost. 



186 MODIFIED PREDICATE. 

(h.) Demonstrative ; thus, izizive lezi zi si hlula^ these tribes 
surpass us. 

ic.) A relative and its complement ; thus, abanUo a ba nga 
ftmdiyo a oa sehenzi Tiokulii^ people who do not learn do not 
work much ; tina esi noliwazi ma si m duniise Uyehovd^ we 
who have knowledge let us praise the Lord. 

§ 351. Remarks. — 1 . When the subject of a j)roposition is 
modified by one or more words, as in the fore^^oing para- 
graphs, it is called a comjplex subject ; while the subject which 
consists of a single word, or denotes a thing the nature of 
which is determined by a single idea only, is called incomplex 
or simjyJe. The complex subject constitutes the logical ; while 
the noun itself, the leading word in the combination, is termed 
the grammatical subject. The grammatical subject is the 
same as the logical when the latter is a single word or simple 
term. In speaking of the suhject of a proposition, whether in 
the foregoing or following pages, the gvammiatical is always 
intended where the term is used alone. 

2. [a^ Where two or more nouns (or pronouns), simple sub- 
jects, are connected together, so that one predicate applies to 
each, they form a compound subject ; thus, ahafimdisi nen- 
dunct ha puma emkunjini^ the teachers and captain came out 
of the ship ; nemhala ha hlangana TJmaiieinane nenduna^ 
verily Umanemane and the captain met. 

(6.) These compound subjects admit of modifications in the same 
manner as the simple subject ; thus, 'izizwe ezinye nabantu abanye a 
ba kataleli imipefumlo yabo,' some tribes and some people care not for 
their souls. 

Sect. 1. — Modified Predicate. 

§ 362. Remarks. — 1. The predicate, like the subject (§ 351.), 
may be either grammatical or logical. The grammatical 
predicate is incomplex, simple, the quality or attribute which 
it expresses being determined by a single idea. The logical 
predicate consists of the grammatical, the leading word in the 
combination, together with its various modifications; and 
hence it is s^enerally complex. When the grammatical predi- 
cate is not modified, it is the same as the logical. 

2. {a.) The predicate is also spoken of as simple or single 
when there is only one in a single proposition, since it ex- 
presses but a single quality or attribute of the subject. The 
remaining paragraphs of this section (§§ 353-356.) will afford 
numerous examples of the simple predicate. But there may 
be two or more simple predicates in a single proposition, each 
of which may be either grammatical or logical; and these 
form what is termed a compound predicate, since it expresses 
several different qualities of the same subject. Specimens of 



MODIFIED PREDICATE. 187 

the compoiiiid predicate are given in tlie following examples ; 
thus, 

'Abantu ba kona bakulu, bade,' the people there (of that place) are 
large and tall ; ' izinwele zabo zimnyama, zi ya kazimula,' their hair is 
black and glossy ; ' ma li hanibe izwi lako, li fundise abantu bonke,' 
let thy word go, and teach all people. 

{b.) Compound predicates admit of modifications in the same manner 
as the simple predicate. 

3. In the foregoing and following pages, the grammatical predicate 
is always meant when the term predicate is used alone. It may con- 
sist of a noun, adjective, pronoun, or verb. 

§ 353. When the predicate consists of a 7Wiiu, it may be 
modified in the same manner as the subject (nominative) ; i. e., 
by a noun in the same case, or by a noun in the genitive ; by 
an adjective ; or by a pronoun, possessive, demonstrative, or 
relative. (§§ 348-350.) 

§ 354. When the predicate is an adjective it may be modi- 
fied:— 

1. By an adverh ; thus, izihiimhana zazo zincinyane ha- 
kulii, their little hides are very small. 

2. By a noim / — (ct.) Without a preposition ; thus, umimttc 
lo "tnuhle icbuso hake, that man is beautiful (as to) his face. 
(b,) With a preposition ; thus, iimhila %i sti iiikidii hu nen- 
komo, maize is greater {i. e., more valuable) than cattle. 

§ 355. When the predicate is a pronoun it may be modified 
or defined : — 

1. By a noun / — {a.) In apposition ; thus, i yona inhomo, it 
is a cow. {h.) In the genitive ; thus, i lona lenhosi, it is that 
of the chief. 

2. By an adjective / thus, u yena lo omlcidu, he is that great 
one. 

3. By a pronoun ; — («.) In the genitive ; thus, i yona 
eyako, it is that of thine, or that which belongs to thee, {b.) 
The relative and its complement ; thus, u yena oiva inuka^ it 
is he who departed. 

§ 356. When the predicate is a vei'h it may be modified or 
limited : — 

1. By a noun / — {a.) In the accusative ; thus, 7igi ya bona 
abantu^ I see people ; izinsimba zi ya tandeka ku ''bantu^ wdld 
cats are liked by the people ; wa hamba ngehashi, he went on 
horseback, {b.) In the locative j thus, bet yile emfuleni^ they 
have gone to the river ; ngi vela ekaya, I come from home. 

2. By an adverb ; thus, unwcd)io Iwa fika ngasemva, the 
chameleon arrived afterwards ; ba sebenza lapa, they work 
here. 

Rem. —The infinitive may be modified like the verb of a predicate ; 
and all those words which are used to modify a verb may themselves 
be modified in various ways. 



188 COMBINATIONS AND PROPOSITIONS. 

Sect. 5. — Variety of Coinhinations and Propositions. 

§ 357. The constituent combinations of a simple sentence 
may be reduced to three varieties, the Predicative, the Attrib- 
utive, and the objective. The first of these, the predicative, is 
the germ of the rest, being that from which the other two are 
evolved, or upon which they are conditioned. 

§ 358. I. The Predicative combination consists of a subject, 
of its predicate, and of the relation or union by which they are 
brought and held together. The predicate, however, is the 
prominent notion before the mind. To combinations of this 
class pertain all remarks upon the noun or other words used as 
a subject nominative, upon verbs or other words used as a 
predicate, and upon the different relations of number and per- 
son, mode and tense. 

§ 359. II. The Attributive combination presupposes the pre- 
dicative, and is founded upon it. Its essence consists in 
reducing a genus to a species, adding some notion to a noun or 
pronoun for the purpose of describing it. The most common 
form of it is an adjective used as an attributive ; though other 
forms of it occur, as when the attributive relation is expressed 
by the use of a genitive, a noun in apposition. 

The predicative combination may be converted into the attributive 
bj changing the predicate to an attributive ; thus, ' umfana u lungile,' 
the boy is good ; ' umfana o lungile,' or 'o lungileyo,' the good boy, or 
the boy who is good. All remarks upon adjectives, pronouns, and 
nouns used to limit the meaning of other nouns or the meaning of 
other words used as nouns, have respect to the attributive combination. 

§ 360. III. 1. The Objective combination is best known and 
understood by the use of the accusative after a verb. Its 
essence consists in making some addition to the predicate for 
the purpose of individualizing its general notion, or to bring it 
down to some particular. And ever}^ word, or combination of 
words, which is added to a verb or an adjective, in order to 
limit or qualify its generic idea, is termed an object or an ob- 
jective factor. 

2. These objects are of two kinds, the completing and the 
adverbial. 

a. Sometimes the predicate is of such a nature that an object must 
be added to make the sense complete, in which case the object is called 
the completing object. Of this class there are several varieties, as : — 
{a.) the suffering, or that which stands with a transitive verb ; (0.) the 
conditioned, or that which is generally spoken of as governed by a pre- 
position expressed or understood ; and (c.) the factitive object, or that 
which denotes an effect produced by the action of the verb either upon 
the suffering object, or upon the subject itself, as when one thing is 
made into anotlier, or serves for another. 

h. When an object is added, not as necessary to complete the sense 
of the predicate, but to express some particular circumstance respect- 
ing it, such as the time, place, or manner of the action, it is termed the 
adverbial object, or the object of time, of place, or of manner. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 189 

§ 361. Propositions may be divided into different kinds, and 
named according to the different states of the mind which 
they express and represent, or from some other inherent char- 
acteristic, snch as : — 

1. The Declarative / thus, ngi ya tnnda^ I do love. 

2. The Interrogative^ the construction of which differs from 
the declarative by the addition of the interrogative particle 
na = ? generally at the end of the proposition ; thus, 7igi ya 
tanda naf do I love ? 

3. The Imjperative ; thus, ma ngi taiide, let me love. 

4. The Optative ; thus, se nga ti ngi nga tanda^ oh that I 
may love. 

5. The Exclamatory ; thus, lialala ^hantu lyetu^ nako okuhle ! 
well done our people, that is good ! Awii I ^hazalwana aha tan- 
dehayo^ kuhle ku he kona aha nesineke emisehenzini yaho^ oh ! 
beloved brethren, well would it be, were there those who 
attend to their duties. 

Rem.— There are other divisions and names which have respect to 
propositions in their correlative and compound character. 

Sect. 6. — Compound Sentences. 

§ 362. Two or more propositions connected together are 
called a compound sentence. These propositions, members or 
clauses, considered in respect to their relation to each other, 
may be divided into three general classes — the Co-ordinate^ 
the Siohordinate^ and the Incidental. 

§ 363. I. When two propositions are each in a measure in- 
dependent of the other, and yet so related and united as to 
form only one thought, they are said to be connected by way 
of Co-ordination. Of this class there are several kinds ; as, the 
Copulative, the Adversative, the Disjunctive, and the Causal. 

§ 364. 1. Two propositions, each of which has an independ- 
ent meaning, are sometimes connected by a copulative con- 
junction, or by some equivalent, in which case the co-ordination 
is copulative ; thus, 

' Ba hamba abanye, nati sa hamba,' others went, we also went. 

Rem. 1. — Sentences of this sort, having either the same subject or the 
same predicate common to both, are frequently contracted into one by 
having the common member expressed but once ; thus, 

Inkosi nenkosikazi ba twalwa emahlombe abantu, nabafun- 
disi nenduna; 

The king and queen were carried on the shoulders of the people, also 
the teachers and captain. 

Rem. 2. — The copulative conjunction connects the propositions by 
connecting the subjects (as above), and not the predicates ; and even 
here, with subjects, it is often wanting ; thus, ' abantu ba kona bakulu, 



190 COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

bade,' the people there are large (and) tall ; ' izinwele zabo zimnyama, 
zi ya kazimula,' their hair is black (and) glossy. 

Rem. 3. — Sometimes the co-ordinate proposition is reduced to a pre- 
position and a noun ; thus, ' ba hamba abanye nati,' others went and 
we, or with us. 

§ 365. 2. Sometimes the two clauses, which are miited to 
form one thought, are contrasted with each other, forming an 
adversative co-ordinate sentence. 

(a.) When the contrast or opposition is of such a nature that 
the thought in the co-ordinate clause merely limits or restrains 
the thought of the other, it is often introduced by the conjunc- 
tion kodwa^ hanti, noko^ or noma / thus, si sa jpila noko si 
hluhickile^ we are still alive notwithstanding we have revolted. 

(b.) When the contrast is such that the thought in the co- 
ordinate clause wholly denies the thought in the other, the 
structure of one clause is affirmative, the other negative ; thus, 
inkomo ka imnandi^ hnhi^ the cow is not well (but) ill ; um- 
hlanga wa kona u fana nezinti zesiswebio^ a wu fani nowa 
lapa^ the reed of that place resembles whip-sticks, it does not 
resemble that of this place. 

§ 366. 3. When two clauses are united in one whole sen- 
tence, yet one of them excludes the other, the co-ordination is 
disjunctive, as in the following examples: — 

IJfaku u ya ku ku siza uma u nga sa sizwanga imina ; 

Faku or I will help you, — literally, Faku will help you if you are not 
already helped by me. 

Uma ku nge siye Ufaku, ku nge siye Umakobeni, Umbopa 

u ya ku hamba ; 
Faku or Makobeni or Umbopa will go. 

Yilowo umuntu ku tina a nga hamba ngenye indhlela, uma 

e nga sa hambanga ngenye ; 
Either man of us can go either the one way or the other. 

TJbisi lu nyelezela okwamanzi, or ubisi lu gijimisa kwa- 

manzi ; 
Milk flows (or runs) like water. 

U hambisa okwehashi ; 
He goes like a horse. 

§ 367. 4. Two sentences may be so arranged and connected 
that the one shall denote a cause or reason of what is expressed 
in the other, giving a causal co-ordinate sentence ; thus, 

Abantu bonke ba kala ngokuba imvula i bi nge ko ; 

Everybody was in distress because there was no rain. 

Ea ti, noyihlo wa ba yinkosi nje, ngokuba wa wela nomuzi 
wonke, wa patela kona nga pesheya kwoTugela; 

They said, your father also became king in this way, because he 
crossed over with (his) entire estate, and treated there beyond the 
Tugela. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. • 191 

§ 368. II. When two sentences are so related that one is de- 
pendent upon the other, as when one defines and explains the 
other, or as when one niemher of a sentence is modified and 
expanded into an additional sentence, .thej are connected by 
way of Suhordination. Here the accessory or dej^endent sen- 
tence — its snhject and predicate taken together — makes part of 
the other, (the principal sentence,) forming its subject, its attri- 
bute, or its object. Hence these subordinate sentences are of 
three kinds — Siihdantim^ Adjective^ and Adverhial^ according 
as they stand in the place of a noun, adjective, or adverb. 

§ 869. 1. A Substantive subordinate sentence is one in 
Avhich a noun (or an infinitive) is expanded into a sentence, 
and used as a subject, an attribute, or an object. 

{a.) As the s\d)ject of a sentence ; thus, %ima si ya hu jpeta a 
kwazehi nakanye^ that we shall succeed is by no means cer- 
tain ; lohu kwa he kit wuto olukidu tckuba he tioahoe njengen- 
kosi^ this was a great thing that they should be carried like a 
king. 

(]).) As a predicate or as a noun in apposition to a substan- 
tive in the principal sentence ; thus, a si ^mteto wa sesilun- 
gioini iikuha ku sizive ahantu ha kwaZuho icma he imika^ it is 
not a law of the white man's country that people from Zulu- 
land be helped when they depart ; ku tiwe izikati ezi citakele 
a zi huyi zi fumaneke^ it is said, opportunities wasted do not 
come to hand again. 

{c.) As the ohject of a verb ; thus, 

Ni ya bona ukuha si nga funda, you see that we can learn ; si ya 
kumbula ukuha abanye a ba z' azi kakulu lezi 'zindaba, we remember 
that some are not well acquainted with these subjects. 

Rem. 1. — The entire compound sentence, that is, both the ordinary 
principal, and the subordinate members are often found in a kind of 
idiomatic subordination, being the object of the verb ukii ti ; thus, 

Kwa ti abafundisi ba f una ukuba ba gaule izindhlu zabo ; 

And {or, and it was so, — literally, it said) the teachers wished them 
to fell (trees) for their houses. 

Kwa ti kwenye indao ya funyana abanye be quba izinkomo, 
ba ti aba sesilungwini ba baleka ba zi shiya izinkomo ; 

It said {or, it was so that) at another place it (the commando) fell in 
with others driving cattle, and (literally, they said) those of the 
white man's country fled, leaving the cattle. 

Rem. 2. — This verb uku ti serves also to introduce direct quotations, 
a sentence in which the language of another is given in his own 
words; thus, wa ti, ''riinga si limazi, si ngaba sesilungwini.''' Ya ti 
impi uku pendula kwayo, " si ya ku bona ngokuba ni nga baleki pela." 
Said he, "you must not hurt us, we belong to the white man's pro- 
vince." The commando said in its reply, "we will see, for of course 
then, you will not run away." 

§ 370. 2. An Adjective sentence is one in which an adjec- 
tive, or so-called participle, is expanded into a sentence, and, 



I 
192 COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

like an adjective, employed to give a more exact definition of 
a noun or pronoun. It is generally connected with the princi- 
pal sentence by means of a relative pronoun ; thus, 

Ahantu aba nga fundiya a ha sebenzi kakulu, people who do not 
learn (= ignorant people) do not work much ; yena o zondayo u ya zi- 
zonda, he who hates hates himself. 

Rem. — A subordinate adjective sentence may be used to qualify a 
noun expressed in the principal sentence, as above ; or be itself used as 
a substantive, the general notion of a person or thing being under- 
stood ; thus, 

I ya ku baty wa e tyotyayo ; 

The skulking shall be caught, i. e., the thief which skulks in a gar- 
den, or the wolf which lurks about the fold, or the bird that goes 
hopping round the snare, shall be caught. 

§ 371. 3. An Adverbial sentence is one which is used like 
an adverb, to express the place, time, manner, or cause of 'an 
action. It consists of an adverb, participle, or noun, expanded 
into a sentence to denote some object which does not complete, 
but merely defines the idea of the predicate — the different 
kinds of which are illustrated by the following examples : — 

{a.) Adverbial sentences of place ; as, ba ziharabisa lajpa be 
tandahona^ they transport themselves wherever they like. 

(J.) Adverbial sentences of time ; as, impi i puma ebtisiha 
lapo im^iftila i si tyile^ the commando goes out in the winter 
when the rivers are already low. 

(c.) Adverbial sentences of manner / as, 

Wa ngi pata n jengokuba nga pata wena ; 

He treated me just as 1 did you. 

Ngi be ngi sa m zwile ku be ikona ngi m tandayo ; 
The more I heard him the better I liked him. 

Uma nga be ngi konza Utixo wami na ngenxenye yokuqina 
e ngi konzile ngako inkosi yami, nga be ngi ya ku bu- 
siswa ; 

Had I but served my God with half the zeal I served riiy king, I 
should have been blessed. 

Ba ti abantu a ba fi kakulu njenga sehlobo ; 

They think the people do not die so much (in the winter) as in the 
summer. 

U ya ku ba nokudhla kwokuba u tenge nokwokuba u dhle ; 

You shall have food so as to both sell and eat. 

{d.) Adverbial sentences of caicse or reason ; as, 

Ngi ya bonga ngamandhla ukuba u ngi tumele le 'ncwadi ; 
I am very thankful that you sent me that letter. 

Ngi ya hlupeka ngokuba a ngi kwazi uku loba ; 
I am troubled because I do not know how to write. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 193 

Tina a si iiako iikwazi, ngako ma si nga yekisisi ukii funda ; 

We ourselves have no knowledge, therefore let us not neglect to 
learn. 

Rem. — Adverbial sentences of this latter (causal) class often 
express a condition or make a concession. 

(a.) The conditional sentence is generally introduced by the 
liypothetical conjunction uma or its equivalent ; as, 

Uma a si na 'kwazi ma si yeke si tule ; 

If (or since) we don't know let us stop and be still. 

O! uma se ku tyo abaninizo njalo, po mina ngi se nokutini na i 

O ! if indeed the owners say so, why, what indeed have I to say 
(about it) ? 

Ukuba be si nokwazi nga be zi nga si hluli ; 

If we were intelligent perhaps they would not surpass us. 

(h.) The concessive sentence is generally introduced by 
noma or its equivalent ; as, 

JSToma ku kude kakulu, u tyetya njengokuba ku seduze ; 
Though it is very far, it (the telegram) speeds as though it were near. 

Nokuba a ku nemfuyo, nokuba a ku nomhlobo o shiye ifa 
nawe, ukukutala ku ngunina wenzuzo ; 

Even if (or though) you have no wealth, even if you have no friend 
who leaves his estate with you, diligence is the mother of gain. 

§ 372. Ill, Incidental members of a sentence are those sec- 
ondary clauses which accompany either leading or subordinate 
members, and usually require to be rendered jDarticipially, or 
by the introduction of an adverb or conjunction ; but stand, as 
it were, too much aloof to be reckoned as either co-ordinate or 
dependent members — of which the following may be given as 
examples : — 

Ya ti impi uku pendula kwayo, si ya ku bona, ngokuba ni 

nga baleki pela, ya yi tyo i sondela ; 

The commando said, in its reply, we will see, for of course then, you 
will not run away, drawing near as it spoke. 

A ku ko ukusizeka, isineke si nge ko ; 
There is no profit (where) there is no care. 

A buye a kulume nabanye abantu, ukuti, kumi kanjani 
ukuba ngi hlabe inkomo yami, ku tiwa i biz we ngobaba, 
ngi nga ze nga sinda na ? 

Again he talks with other people, saying, how is it with me that I 
offer my animal, it is said it was required by the shades of my an- 
cestors, and yet I do not recover at all? 

Ba y' esaba uku veza amasi izulu li duma ; 

They are afraid to bring out the amasi (when) heaven thunders. 

(See §221.) 

13 



194 NOMINATIVE. 

§ 3Y3. Having noticed the different kinds and parts of sim- 
ple propositions, and the different kinds of relation which the 
several members of a compound sentence bear to each other, 
we proceed to discuss the agreement and government, the rela- 
tion, arrangement, and position of each part, more in detail. 



CHAPTER II. 

SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 

§ 374. Remark. — The leading rules under the noun apply 
also to the pronoim. Any thing peculiar to the pronoun will 
be given under rules for that part of speech. 

Sect. 1. — The Nominative. 

§ 375. A noun used either as the subject or as the predicate 
of a sentence is put in the nominative ; as, uimkuinbu vja pin- 
dela^ the ship returned; ulwandlile lu yinto enhidu^ the sea is 
a great thing ; Udingane wa ha yinhosi^ Dingane was chief. 

§ 376. From its high office as denoting the subject of dis- 
course, the nominative becomes the leading case and a repre- 
sentative of the word in all its forms. Hence, whenever there 
is occasion to use a noun where it can be free from the fetters 
of grammatical construction, it appears in the nominative, 
which is accordingly characterized as the nominative inde- 
pendent or absolute. To this general rule may be referred the 
following variety of examples : — 

§ 377. I. The use of the nominative in the inscription of 
names, titles, headings, chapters, and divisions ; as, mina in- 
celcii yako Umdekazi, I thy servant Umdekazi ; TJntaba in- 
cekit yaho, TJntaba thy servant ; izinddba za le ^nyanga the 
news of this month. 

§ 378. 11. 1. Nouns used in address are sometimes put in 
this case — the nominative independent — instead of the voca- 
tive ; thus, umhloho wami^ my friend ; umngani wami, my 
lord. 

2. So, often, in exclamatory address ; as, niai nina dba- 
zenzisi ! O ye hypocrites ! 

3. So in salutations ; as, E^ umngani^ izinddba ezinhle ! 

hail, friend, good news ! 

Rem. — Sometimes, however, the vocative is used in exclamation ; 
thus, ail mame ! 'babakazi, umuntu wehine, inkosi kupela ! verily! 
surprising ! great father, European, chief indeed ; O 'baba ! a ngi na 
'ndao, O father ! I am not able. (§ 404.) 

§ 379. III. A noun used for speciiication by way of intro- 
ducing some remark or topic, or as an adjunct to apply a word 



NOMINATIVE. 195 



or expression to a particular part, property, thought, action, 
person, or thing, is put in the nominative independent. A 
noun thus used is generally rendered into English by means of 
a preposition or some other introductory term, such as, m, in 
resjject to^ as to^ etc. ; thus, 

Kodwa into e ngi yenzayo, ngi tengisa ngezinkomo zami ; 

But the thing which I am doing, I am offering my cattle for sale. 

Ya ti impi uku pendula kwayo ; 
Said the commando (in) its reply. 

Kodwa ukufa kwabantu ba fa ngendao yokwesaba amanzi ; 

But as to the perishing of the people they perished through fear of 
the water. 

Kodwa ukuvama kwabantu be muka namanzi ; 

But as to the majority of the people they went down stream. 

Umtwana a nga nqunywa ulimi Iwake ; 

A child might have his tongue cut off — literally, might be cut off (as 
to) his tongue. 

(Umoya) u n jani wona isiqa sawo na ? 

What is it (the wind) as to its substance ? 

(Inkomo) i lele amuntu pakati ; 

It (the cow) lies a man in the middle, — spoken of an animal whose 
flanks differ in color from the rest of the body. 

§ 380. IV. A noun placed after another signifying the 
same thing, to explain, describe, or specify it, gives another 
variety of the nominative independent, though usually denom- 
inated " apposition in the same case." In the Isizulu, when 
the leading noun is in the nominative case, the noun annexed, 
to explain it, is in the same, both logically and grammatically ; 
but when the leading noun is in the genitive, locative, or voca- 
tive, the case of the noun annexed for explanation, though log- 
ically the same, is often grammatically different, having the 
form of the nominative ; thus, 

W ala Undhlela induna enkulu ; 

Undhlela the great captain dissented. 

Wa bulawa Umhlangana umne wake ; 
Umhlangana his brother was killed. 

Sa fika Emaqonqo, izintaba ezimbili ; 
We arrived at the Amakonko, two mountains. 

Udingane wa puma Embebeni, umzi omkulu ; 

Dingane left the great kraal Umbebe. 

Rem. 1. — In examples like the above, there seems to be an ellipsis of 
the relative pronoun, the use of which is still common ; thus, 

Kwa be kona umfo, Umanemane ibizo lake, o yinduna yo- 
tixo babo ; 



196 GENITIVE. 

There waS a person present, Umanemane by name, who was minis- 
ter of their deities. 

Nga hlala kwomunye umuntu o yisililobo nje ; 

I lived with another person who was merely a friend. 

Rem. 2. — So far as respects mere form, a noun in apposition with 
another in the accusative might be said to be in the nominative, since 
the form of both nominative and accusative is the same. Yet, as 
already remarked (§ 112., 3.), there is a convenience at least in allowing 
an accusative. 

§ 381. V. 1. A noiiii, the agent of a verb in the passive 
voice, might be regarded as the nominative independent, since 
it is not marked by any inflection, nor connected with the verb 
by a preposition or other relational word. It is thought, how- 
ever, that a proper idea of the office of nouns thus used may 
be more readily given to most minds by speaking of snch 
nouns as in the accusative without a governing word. (See 
§395.) 

2. Incidental clauses, often giving a noun used with a verb, 
like a noun with a participle in English, independent of the 
grammatical construction into which it logically enters, may be 
regarded as affording another variety of the nominative inde- 
pendent ; thus, 

Ya si xotyake, izwe li lungile, ya si pahla pakati ; 

It (the commando) routed us, the country favored (or favoring), it 
surrounded us. 

I zisa emanzini, umfula u zele ; ya fika ya si tela kona 

emanzini ; 

It brought (us) to the water, the river was full (or being full) ; it 
came and poured us at once into the water. 

Abatakati ba hamba ebusuku, abantu be lele ; 
Wizards go about in the night, the people being asleep. 

Sect. 2. — The Genitive. 

§ 382. A noun used to limit another noun by denoting ori- 
gin, ownership, or designation, is generally put in the genitive, 
when the latter signifies a different thing from the former. 

§ 383. I. In respect to origin^ source, or cause ; thus, izioi 
lenkos% word of the chief ; icala lomfana^ the boy's fault ; 
isik'umha senhabi^ the hide of an ox ; uhlamvio lioesibamu^ a 
ball from the gun. 

Rem. 1. — To this head may be referred those examples in which the 
second noun limits the first by indicating the material of which it is 
composed ; as, ingubo yoboya, a garment of wool ; intonga yetusi, a 
rod of brass. 

Rem. 2. — When the limiting noun denotes place, it generally, but 
not always, takes the locative form together with the genitive ; thus, 
uynteto wa sesilungwini, law of the white man ; abantu ba sEiianda, 
people of Inanda ; etafeni le Tengatenga, the plain of Tengatenga. 



GENITIVE- 197 

§384:.- II. In respect to ownership^ or possession; thus, 
izinkoino zi lea '' Mpande^ Umpande's cattle; ingiibo yoimintu^ 
a person's garment ; nemhala wa ho qeda ugange Iwomuzi wen- 
kosi^ and verily he linished the wall of the king's city. 

Rem. 1. — When the limiting noun takes an adjective or a pronoun 
before it, the sign of the genitive is given to the adjective or pronoun ; 
thus, izinkomo zamanye amadoda, other men's cattle ; amabuto esinye 
isizice, soldiers of another tribe ; izindaba za le 'nyanga, the news of 
this month ; umuzi iva loico 'mmitu, the kraal of that man 

Rem. 2. — Sometimes the genitive takes a preposition between the 
noun and the sign of possession which precedes : thus, umnimzana wo 
ku lowo 'niuzi, the master of to that kraal ; inkosi ya kwa Zidu, chief 
of the Zulu country ; abantu ba kiviti, our people. 

Rem. 3. — Sometimes the sign of possession is omitted, the relation 
which we denote by of in English, being expressed by ku alone ; thus, 
yi loico umuntu ku Una, eacli person of us ; a ku se ko noyedwa ku 
^bakiduica bako, there is not one of thine elder brothers alive. 

§ 385. III. In respect to designation^ object, or fitness ; thus, 

Ba funa ukuba ba gaule izindhlu zabo zokulala, nezezinto, 

nezezincwadi ; 

They wished them to build houses for them for lodging, and for 
goods and for books. 

Ma si tyele abantu ngonisindisi wezono ; 
Let us tell the people of a Saviour for sins. 

Sa si nge na 'sizungu somsindisi, si nge na 'sizungu saba- 

tuny wa ; 
We had no desire for a Saviour, no desire for missionaries. 

Be ngi nge nayo ingubo yokwambata ; 
I had no blanket to put on. 

A ngi na 'bantu bokuzisa umbila ; 
I have no people to bring the maize. 

Rem. 1. — The limiting noun, particularly that which denotes designa- 
tion, maybe separated by a word or clause from the noun limited; thus, 

Induna enkulu ya sEmvoti ; 

The great chief for the Umvoti. 

Kodwa indao nati a si yi boni yokwehla incwele ; 

But a place we also do not see it for descending a wagon, i. e.,for 
wagon to descend. 

Rem. 2. — Limitation is sometimes expressed by a clause introduced 
by a conjunction in the genitive ; thus, 

Se be nga tenga ngesikati sokuma se ku twasile ihlobo ; 
They may sell at the time of that the summer has fairly come. 

Kodwa ngi ti e ya kwetu, indao a si yi boni yokuma i ng' 
ehla lapa ; 

But I think ours (our wagon), we do not see a place of that it can 
descend here, i. e., I think we see no place where ours can de- 
scend here. 



198 GENITIVE. 

§ 386. The limited or governing noun is frequently omit- 
ted ; — in some instances because it is understood or implied in 
the connection ; in other instances because the abridged form 
has passed into invariable established usage, or become idio- 
matic. 

§ 38Y. I. {a.) The limited noun is often understood ; thus, 

Kodwa ngi ti e ya kwetu ; 

But I think ours {i. e., our wagon), etc.,— the word for wagon being 
understood from the connection. 

Utyaka wa gcina Emampondweni, wa buya wa ya kwelo la 
'Soshengane ; 

Chaka went as far as the Amampondo, and returned and went to 
Soshengan's (country). 

A hambe, umzi wa 'mtu 'munye ; a hambe, wa 'mtu 'munye ; 
a hambe, wa 'mtu 'munye ; 

He goes on (and comes to) a kraal of one person ; goes on (and 
comes to a kraal) of one person ; goes on (and comes to a kraal) of 
one person. 

Se si bambile elentulo ; 

We have already received the lizard's (message). 

{h.) The limited noun is often implied, or faintly imaged by 
the use of the incipient alone ; thus, 

Abetu V ake imizi, ours (i. e. , our peoi3le) build kraals ; ngi ngowako , 
1 am thine ; se nga ti nga ku ngokwami, oh that it were mine ; uinkam i 
= umfazi ka mina, or umfazi wami, my wife. 

Rem.— To this head must be referred certain forms and uses which 
may be denominated the inflective genitive (to distinguish it from the 
usual form and use, which may be called the analytic, — the latter cor- 
responding to the Norman use which we denote by of, the former to 
the Saxon use denoted by 's in the English language) ; thus, inkomo i 
ngeyomu7itu, the cow is the man's, — where the ng is euphonic copula ; 
e is relational (=: a-i), referring to inkomo; and y is preformative, re- 
ferring also to inkomo ; and the full form of which would be, inkomo i 
yinkomo yomuntu, the cow is a cow of the man, or the cow is the man's 
cow. Negative form, inkomo a i siyo eyomuntu, the cow is not the 
man's. So other examples : — itole li ngeleiikosi, the calf is the king's ; 
itole a silo elenkosi, the calf is not the king's ; ahantu ba ngabenkosi, 
the people are the king's ; a sibo abenkosi, they are not the king's ; izin- 
komo zi ngezabantu, the cattle are the people's ; a sizo ezabantu, they 
are not the people's. 

§ 388. 11. (a.) In certain instances the use of a limiting 
noun without the noun limited, has passed into common use or 
an idiom ; thus, 

Abane wetu (not often betu), our brothers ; odade wetu (not often betu), 
our sisters, — in both which cases there is evidently an ellipsis of some 
word, probably umuzi, which would give the full form thus, abane 
bomuzi wetu; odade bomuzi wetu, brothers, or sisters of our kraal, vil- 
lage, or family, — like omame bomuzi wetu or wami, mothers of our or 
my kraal. 



CIENITIVE. 199 

Rem. — Examples like the above are not to be confounded with such 
as the following : — Izinkomo za wobaba betu. our fathers' cattle ; inkosi 
ya womame betu, our mothers' chief,— where w is euphonic, and em- 
ployed to preserve the initial o, the sign of the plural in obaba, fathers, 
and omame, mothers. 

{h.) Other elliptic forms may be seen in such expressions as, 
u hamhisa okioelLCishi^ he goes like a horse, — which is doubt- 
less elliptical for, u hamhisa hu nohiihamha hwehashi, he goes 
like the going of a horse ; se he hamhisa okioa hona^ already 
were they living according to the customs of the pkce. So, 
yeho vjetu^ yes my friend (or lord), umngani or other similar 
term being omitted ; a ngi yi ku halekela owetu or tcioetu^ I 
will not flee from our (foe or brother) ; owendldu^ one of the 
house ; plural, ahendhhc, some of the house = domestics. So 
in the forms, lo sendhlwini A'wake^ he is in his house ; also, tc 
lajja Icivake e?isimini, he is here in his garden, — where there 
is probably an ellipsis of some word, as, nJcuhlala or uAmse- 
henza / thus, u sendhlwini yohuhlala hvjake ; u lapa ehiiseiy- 
emeni hvKike ensimini. 

§ 389. The Isizulu makes a nice distinction between the 
genitive sid)jectlve and the genitive ohjective^ which requires to 
be carefully observed. 

1. The genitive is termed suhjective when it denotes that 
which does or has something ; thus, 

In the phrases, ukubona kwabantu, the seeing of the people ; uku- 
tanda kwabantu, the love of people.— the people do something, viz., 
see, love. etc. And in the phrases, izinkomo zabantii, cattle of the peo- 
ple ; imisebenzi yabavtu, work of the people. — the people have some- 
thing, viz., cattle, work, etc. Hence in these and similar examples, 
kwabantu, zabantu, etc., are in the genitive subjective. 

2. The genitive is termed ohjective when it denotes that 
w^hich suffers something, or that which is the ohject of what is 
expressed by the noun limited ; thus, 

Ukubomca kwabantu, the being seen of people, or the people's being 
seen; ukutandwa kwabantu, the being loved of people, i.e., the peo- 
ple's being loved. Here the genitive is objective, since abaniu, the peo- 
ple, suffer, or denote the object of what is expressed in the limited 
(verbal) nouns, ukubonwa, ukutandwa, etc. Hence, ukutanda ku ka 
Yesu denotes that love of Jesus which he exercises, or bestows on us : 
and ukutandwa ku ka Yesu denotes that love of Jesus which he suffers, 
or receives from us, — that of which he is the object. 

So in the following examples : — 

I ti imbuzi lapa i kalayo, i zwa ubuhlungu bokubulawa, a ti, 
Yebo, pela, nanso inkomo yenu ; ma i kale, ni zwe nina 
abakiti eni ngi sindisileyo ; 

And when the goat cries out. feeling the pain of being killed, he 
says. Yes, then, there is your animal ; let it cry, and hear ye even 
ye our (gods) who have saved me. 

Imbala a si ko ini ukulungiselwa kwabantu bonke ukuba ku 

be kona ukubuswa kwelizwe oku njalo na ? 

Is it not really every man's interest that there should be such a gov- 
ernment of the world ? 



200 GENITIVE. 

Rem. —(a.) The difference between the objective and the subjective 
lies not in the form of the genitive, but in the signification of the gov- 
erning or limited word. Hence passive verbals always give an ob- 
jective genitive, as in the foregoing examples. In like manner verbs 
of the deponent and subjective species, and nouns derived from them, 
generally give an objective genitive. 

(b.) In English, tlie phrase devastation of the people might 
mean what they loroKght^ or what they svffei'ed / bnt ukucita 
JcwaJja ntt( wovild ex23ress the former, the subjective^ ?a\d iikio- 
citahala hwabantu^ the latter, objective^ without ambiguity. 
So, isilduijo senkosi^ the oppression of the chief (which he in- 
flicts upon others), subjective ; but isihlupeko seiikosi^ the 
oppression of the chief (which he suffers from others), objec- 
tive. 

So, in Engish, we talk and read of the "temptations of Satan," and 
the "temptation of Christ;" "our minister," and the "minister of 
Christ," and have other like forms, in which, for accuracy and preci- 
sion, the Zulu language is superior to our own. 

>^ 390. 1. Where two or more nouns limit another, the first 
of the tw^o (or more) may take the sign of the genitive, and the 
rest be connected to it by the use of na without the genitive 
sign ; thus, 

Izinkomo zi ka 'Faku noSihekana, Faku's and Usibekana's cattle ; izi- 
kwebu zamahele nombila, ears of amabele and maize. 

2. («.) When the thing possessed is the co?nmo?i property of 
tw^o or more persons, the name of the first in the series is put 
in the plural, and the rest connected with it by the use of na ; 
thus, 

Izinkomo za woSibekana noMbopa noFaku, the cattle of Usibekana, 
Umbopa, and Faku, or the cattle of the Usibekanas, Ubopa, and Faku. 

{b.) So wheu several things are taken together^ one belong- 
ing to one and another to another, the same mode of expres- 
sion may be employed ; thus, 

Imizi ya woFaku noBuba noMbopa, the kraals of Faku, Buba, and 
Umbopa, — literally, the kraals of the Fakus, Buba, and Umbopa. 

Rem. — For the use of w in ivoSibekana and icoFaku, see §388., a., 
Rem.; and for the use of a person's name in the plural, as Osibekana 
and Ofaku, see § 94., 1. 

3. (a.) But where there are several nouns in the genitive, 
and it is deemed important to specify the relation of each to 
the one governing noun, the sign of the genitive is given to 
each one ; thus, 

'Izinkomo zi ka 'Faku nezi ka 'Buba.' the cattle of Faku and of 
Buba. 

{b.) In this way the individual and separate origin, property, 
or designation of two or more persons or things may be spec- 
ified ; thus. 



ACCUSATIVE. 201 

■ Izwi lendoda nelomfana,' word of the man and of the boy, or the 
man's word and the boy's word ; ' izwi nelendoda nelomfana,' word of 
both the man and the boy ; ' imizi yabo omunye ngo ka 'Mnyaiza. 
nomunye ngo ka 'Faku, nomunye ngo ka 'Sibekana,' their kraals, one 
is Mnyaiza's, one Faku's, and one Usibekana's : ' indao yokufunda 
neyokusonda,' a place to learn and to worship. 

Rem. — The idiom and flexibility of the Isizulu sometimes gives us a 
noun governing two others, where the English would make the first 
govern the second, and the second the third : thus, ' kwa ba usuku lu 
ka 'Dingane lokububa,' it was the day for Dingane to die. or it was the 
day of Dingan's death. But where the second is really limited by the 
third the Isizulu shows that relation ; thus, ' sa fika emzini wenduna 
enkulu ya sEmbelebele,' we reached the kraal of the great captain of 
Mbelebele. 

§ 391. When several nouns are all limited by one :— 

1. The limiting or " governed " nonn often takes its sign of 
the genitive relation from that which stands nearest ; thus, 

'Izizwe nabantu belizwe,' the tribes and men of the earth ; ' owe- 
nkosi umzi nezinkomo,' the chief's kraal and cattle. 

2. Where the several limited nouns are of different classes 
and numbers : — (a.) If they denote jjersotis, the limiting noun 
occasionally takes the sign of the first class, plural, h, as if 
summing them all up in the term cibanta ; thtis, amadoda ne- 
zinduna ha Jcvnti, our men and captains. (b.) But if they 
denote things, the limiting noun may take the preformative z, 
as if summing them all up in the term izinto j thus, ezom- 
lungu isihamii nehaski nevja, the white man's gun and horse 
and dog. 

3. Or the limiting noun may take the general indefinite sign 
hu of the eighth class ; thus, iimlomo iiezindhlebe naw.ehlo 
kwomfana, the mouth and ears and eyes of the boy. 

4. Or the limiting noun may be put after the first of the 
nouns to be limited, taking preformative accordingly, and the 
rest be subjoined by the use of the conjunction na ; thus, 
tctnuzi wo'inuntu namasiinijj 7iahantica7ia futi, a person's kraal 
and gardens and children also. 

Sect. 3. — The Accusative. 

§ 392. A noun depending upon an active transitive verb is 
put in the accusative ; thus, 

'Ngi bonile umuntu,' I have seen a person ; 'wa tuma unwabu,' he 
sent the chameleon. 

Rem. — Occasionally a noun, like indao, is found in the accusative 
after an intransitive verb and without a preposition ; thus, ' a ngi 
yanga indao,' I have not been anywhere, — literall3^ 1 have not been (to 
any) place ; ' a ngi sebenzi 'ndao," 1 do not work anywhere. 

§ 393. A noun depending on a preposition is put in the ac- 
cusative ; thus. 



202 ACCUSATIVE. 

U yile ku 'inbusi ; 

He has gone to the magistrate. 

Wa tnma unwabii ku 'bantu ; 
He sent the chameleon to men. 

Kwa tengwa amasimii amabili ngenkomo ; 
Two gardens were bought for a cow, 

Umkumbii u kahlelekile nga pezu kwamatje ; 
The ship was dashed upon the rocks. 

Abelungn ba nezibindi ezikuln kakiilu ngoknliamba elwan- 

dhle ; 
White men have very great courage for traveling by sea. 

Ba be ng' azi ngomenzi na ngomsindisi ; 

They did not know about a Maker and about a Saviour. 

Ngezilimo za kiti ku kona iipoko nezinhlubu ; 

In respect to our vegetables there is the millet and the bean. 

Rem. — The final vowel of the preposition and the initial of the noun 
generally coalesce according to principles already stated (§ 16.) ; thus, 
ngenkomo (= nga-inkomo) ; ngomenzi {= nga-umenzi). But when the 
sentiment is one of a negative character, also where the noun is quali- 
fied by nye, expressed or understood, in the sense of a, one, single, the 
final vowel of the preposition is retained, and the initial of the noun 
elided (§ 440., 1.) ; thus, a si sebenzi nga Into, we do not work with any 
thing ; a si na 'ndao, we have no place ; ba meineza nga Hizwi 'linye, 
they shouted with one voice ; nga ^sikati ba be babili, there wei'e two 
at a time. 

§ 394. A noun is often put in the acccusative without a 
preposition, where the English and some other languages 
would use one : — 

§ 395. I. The efficient agent of an active verb in the passive 
voice is put in the accusative without a prepositio^i ; thus, 

Ba ti, ku ya ku dhliwa aniahlozi ; 
They say, it will be eaten by the ghosts. 

U ti, ngi sindisiwe ihlozi la kwetu ; 

He says, I was restored to health by a ghost of ours. 

Inyamazana i banjwa inja ; 

The game is caught by a dog. 

Rem. 1. — The efficient agent after a passive verb often takes some eu- 
phonic letter corresponding to its initial vowel (§ 35.) : thus. 

Lowo umkumbu u holw^a yihashi ; 
This boat is drawn by a horse. 

Kwa kulunywa iniiteto ngumfundisi ; 

The commandments were declared by the teacher. 

Ku kunjulwa ibo bonke abakristu. 

It is remembered by all christians. 



ACCUSATIVE. 203 

Rem. 2.— a noun denoting the instrument, or that in respect to which 
a thing is done, takes a preposition after the passive voice in the same 
manner as after the active ; thus, 

Zi tengwa ngesitole ; 

They are bought with (or for) a heifer. 

Nabantu abaiiingi ba vusiwe ngemipef iimlo yabo, b' azisiwe 

Umsindisi wabo ngayo inlilanhla ; 

And many people have been aroused in respect to their souls, and 
made acquainted with their Saviour through grace. 

Ulwandlile lu yinto enkuln e 'nge welwe ngnmuntu nge- 

zim^ao zake iigokwake ; 

The sea is a great thing which can not be crossed by a man on foot 
by himself. 

Si ya fundiswa ngokuma kwomhlaba, na ngezizwe, iia ngo- 

kulilala kwazo ; 

We are taught concerning the character of the world, and the na^ 
tions, and their mode of living. 

§ 396. II. Some neuter verbs take tlie accusative, in a man- 
ner similar to the passive, without a preposition ; thus, 
Umkumbu u cwele abantu ; 
The ship is full of people. 

U ya vama uku sebenza ; 
He excels in working. 

Uma si kutele a si so ze sa fa yindhlala ; 

If we are industrious we shall never die of famine. 

Okunye kwa fika abalumbi ; 
Other (kinds of food) came by civilized men. 
Rem. — Zala and mita (miti) are generally used in this same way. 

§ 397. III. A few active verbs, both transitive and intransi- 
tive, are sometimes accompanied by an accusative without a 
preposition, where the English would use one ; thus, 

Abafana ba ngi lilubula ingubo yami ; 

The boys stripped me of my blanket (or garment). 

Abantu ba hlubukile Utixo ; 

People have rebelled against (or revolted from) God. 

Ba si pangile impahla yetu ; 

They have robbed us of our goods. 

§ 398. TV. The force of a preposition is often supplied by 
some specific modification of the verb ; as, 

1. The relative (or el) form, which often supplies the place 
oifo?% to, about, against, etc. (see § 190.) ; thus, 

Ku hlatyelwe bona ; 

It was slaughtered for them. 



204 ACCUSATIVE. 

N'gi size ngezikumba zami, ii ngi patele zona eiicweleni yako ; 
Help me about my hides, and take them for me in your wagon. 

U ya tengela iimhmgiT iia ? 
Do you buy for a white man ? 

Ukuma ngi be ngi nawo umbila ngi be ngi ya ku m ten- 

gela lo 'mlnngu ; 
If I had maize I would sell to that white man. 
(Ma) si ba kalele izinyembezi Enkosini yomusa ; 
(Let) us weep tears for them unto the Lord of mercy. 

2. The causative form, which sometimes signifies to do a 
thing wit?t ; tlius, to a m lalisa^ he slept with him ; u ngi 
fuyisile amandhla^ thou hast girded me with strength. 

Eem. 1. — The preposition na, ivith, is generally required by the noun 
which depends on a verb in the reciprocal form ; thus, nga hambana 
noinuntu, I went with a person ; wa kulumana nami, he conversed 
with me. 

Rem. 2.— The Isizulu often dispenses with the use of a preposition by 
putting a noun in the locative case. (See §§ 401-403.) 

§ 399. ]S"ouns denoting duration of time are generally, not 
always, put in the accusative without a preposition ; thus, 

Wa hlala kona amasonda amatatu ; 
He remained there three Sabbaths. 

Esibayeni ba kulume isikati eside ; 
In the cattle-fold they talked a long time. 

Ba ti, Yebo, isikati eside u ngi gcinile ekuhambeni kwami ; 
They say, Yes, a long time hast thou preserved me alive. 

^gi tanda ukuba ngi hambe ngesikati eside lapa emhlabeni ; 
I desire that I may live for a long time here on the earth. 

^ga hlala kona iminyaka emibili ; 
I lived there two years. 

§ ttOO. A noun denoting the time at or in which a thing is 
said to be, or be done : — 

1. May depend upon a preposition ; thus, 

Ba funa uku tenga na ngesonda ; 
They wanted to trade even on the Sabbath. 

Ku te ngolunye usuku nga ya Elovu ; 

It came to pass on a certain day I went to the Ilovu. 

Kwa ti ngomsumbuluko induna umkumbu ya wu sondeza 

osebeni ; 
And on Monday the captain brought the ship near to shore. 

8e be za ku ganana ngomsumbuluko wokuqala wenyanga 

entya ; 
They are going to marry on the first Monday of the new month. 



LOCATIVE. 205 

Rem. — The initial vowel of the noun is generally elided, instead of 
being united by crasis with the final vowel of the preposition (as 
already remarked in part under i^ 393.) : — 

(a.) In negative propositions ; thus, a ngi na 'sikati, I have not time. 

(b.) Where a thing is said to be or to be done at one and the same 
time, or at a time (^440., 1.) ; thus, nga 'sikati 'sinye si y' azi ukuba 
yenzeka eminye {imisebenzi) eziiidaweni ezinye, at one (and the same) 
time we know that several (things) are done in different places. 

2. May be put in the accusative without a preposition ; thus, 

Kwa ti intambama ba hlangana ; 
And in the afternoon they met together. 

Ba ti, za teng-wa 'nyak' enye ; 
They said, they were bought last year. 

Umfana a ng' ona ku 'yise na ku 'Tixo 'sikati 'sinye ; 

A boy may sin against his father and against God at the same time. 

Rem. — Since the preposition 7ia has lost its specific import, 
and been incorporated as part of a compound word in nmnhla 
and nonijaka^ (where it has the force of an adjective pronoun 
= this,) the use of these words affords a further illustration of 
the above rule ; thus, ha fika namhla^ they arrived to-day ; so 
ha neiidhlala nonyaka^ we shall have a famine this year ; izUo 
ziningi nonyaha, wild beasts abound this year. 

3. May be put in the locative case ; thus, 

Impi i puma ebusika; 

The commando goes out in the winter season. 

Sa fika ebusuku ; 

We arrived in the night. 

Rem. — This making use of the locative in a temporal sense, transfer- 
ring the relations of place to those of time, is not peculiar to the Isi- 
zulu. The same phenomenon is witnessed in other African dialects ; 
nor is it more African than human or philosophical. 

Sect. 4. — The Locative. 

§ 401. A noun used to denote the place at, in, or about 
which a thing is said to be, or to be done, or to or from which 
it proceeds, is put in the locative case. 

1. The place at, in, among, or ahout which ; thus, 

Na lapa na sezizweni zonke ; 
Both here and among all tribes. 

Ihashi li hambe osebeni Iwamanzi, umkumbu u hambe 
emanzini ; 

The horse goes along the edge of the water, the boat goes in the 
water. 

Ba w^u sakaza esibayeni sonke ; 

They scatter it about the whole kraal. 



206 LOCATIVE. 

Ba shiya incozana embizeni ; 

They leave a little in the pot. 

Ku te endhleleni unwabii Iwa libala; 

And on the way the chameleon delayed. 

Ya fikake inkosi, ya buza ezincekwini ; 

So the chief came, and inquired among the servants. 

2. The place to which ; thus, 

^ga ya Elovu, ngi hambela esihlotyeni sami ; 

I went to the Ilovu, and visited among my friends. 

U ya tabata into a ye enyangeni ; 

He takes a thing and goes to the doctor. 

Endhlwini yesikutali indhlala i ya lunguza, i dhlule i ye kvve 
yevila ; 

At the house of the industrious famine casts a wistful look, passes 
on and goes to that of the sluggard. 

Induiia umkumbu ya wu sondeza osebeni ; 
The captain brought the ship into port. 

3. The place y^cm which ; thus, 
Si vela ekaya ; 

We come from home. 

Ba puma emkunjini ; 

They came out of the ship. 

Ukuba kade e hambe e m sindile ekufeni ; 

That long ago he went and saved him from death. 

Loku si m gcinileyo ebuncinyaneni bake ; 

Though we have preserved him ever since (from) his infancy. 

§ 402. Proper nouns, the names of places, rivers, mountains, 
and tribes, and some common nouns, used to denote the place 
of origin, abode, or existence, take the sign of the genitive 
before the locative ; thus, 

Ba be kona bonke abantu ba sEmanzimtoti ; 

There were present all the people of Amanzimtoti. 

Ba nga ka liki aba sEnanda ; 

They of Inanda had not yet arrived. 

A si 'mteto wa sesilungwini ; 

It is not a law of the white race. 

Igwababa lelo la semzini si nge li dhle tina ; 

That crow of a kraal we ourselves can not eat ;— f e. , it is a shame 
for a man to eat amasi at another's kraal. 



VOCATIVE AND ADJECTIVES. 20Y 

U kona vena owa ba qedayo abaiitu ba sekiitini ; nanguya 
ow' ake endaweni enye ; ka siye owa sekaya la lo 'muntu ; 

There is one who put an end to the people of said (village) ; he lives 
yonder in another place ; he does not belong to the home of this 
man. 

§ 403. The locative case sometimes takes the preposition nga 
before it ; thus, 

Sa ilka Emlalazi ezansi nga selwandhle ; 
We arrived at the Umlalazi down by the sea. 

Ku te kusasa kwa se kii vela nezinkomo se zi baleka uga 
sElutugela ; ngokuba ba hambile ebusuku impi ka 'Cety- 
wayo ba hamba, abantu ba ka 'Mbulazi be ba funyanisa 
be lele. Ku te kusasa kwa tiwa, Abantu ka 'Mbulazi i ba 
qedile nga sElutugela ebusuku ; 

It came to pass in the morning that the cattle came fleeing from the 
Tugela ; for Kechwayo's men went and found Umbulazi's men 
asleep. And in the morning it was said, The enemy killed Umbu- 
lazi's men by night on the Tugela. 

Sect. 5. — The Vocative. 

§ 404. The vocative case is used in addressing persons, — 
sometimes with an interjection, but generally without : — 

1. With an interjection ; thus, halala ^hantu hetu ! hail, our 
people I halala^ ^halisa ha Jcwetic ! hail, comrades of ours ; O 
^haha! a ngi namandhla, oh father! I am not able; yeti^ 
^mngani! hail, lord! yetini, ^hangani! hail, ye lords! 

2. Without an interjection ; thus, ^haha ngi heke, father re- 
gard me ; ma si ye ku funda^ ^handhla^ let us go to learn, 
comrades ; ''mngani, izindaba ^zinhle, good news, sir ; ^nkosi ! 
wena umnyama ; loena vja kula^ he lihele ; loena \i nga nge- 
Nanda ! king ! thou art black ; thou hast grown while others 
were delaying ; thou art as Inanda ! a ke ni tyo si zwe^ ^han- 
gani hami, come ye now speak that we may hear, my friends. 

Rem. — The nominative is sometimes used in address, see § 378. 



CHAPTER III. 
SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

Sect. 1. — Agreement of Adjectives. 

§ 405. An adjective agrees with its subject in class, number, 
and person, and generally follows the noun it describes ; thus, 

Umfana omkulu, a large boy : indoda enkulu, a large man ; abafana 
abakulu, large boys ; umfana umkidii, the boy is large ; ngi mkulu, I 
am large ; ni bakidu, ye are large. 



208 AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 

Eem. 1.— Adjectives are used, as already stated § 130., in two ways, 
— as an attributive, and as a predicate ; thus, in the above examples 
omkulu, enkulu, and abakulu are attributives ; but umkulu, mkulu, and 
bakulu are predicates. For the difference in the prefix of the adjective 
as used in these two ways, and for an exhibition of the euphonic prin- 
ciples by which the prefix is affected, see ^^§133., 135.; also the tables 
134., 136. 

Rem. 2.— Sometimes the adjective is compounded with the noun, so 
that both noun and adjective make but one word, in which case the 
adjective neglects to take the prefix ; thus, ubabakulu, my grand- 
father ; umamekulu, my grandmother : impondomhili namabunu na- 
mabuto a ka 'Mpande, (there being) a league (literally, two horns) both 
Boers and the forces of Umpande. 

Rem. 3. — The attributive almost always follows the noun to which it 
belongs, except nye and onke, which may be placed as well before as 
after. The predicate is occasionally placed before the noun, but more 
commonly after it. When a noun takes after it both a possessive pro- 
noun and an adjedtive, the possessive usually takes the precedence of 
the adjective in position ; thus, nemfuyo yetu yonke i vela kuy6 ezul- 
wini, and all our wealth comes from him in heaven. 

§ 406. The use of the adjective as a predicate in affirmative 
propositions, was stated in § 344. In expressing the negative 
of propositions of this kind : — 

1. The adjectives homvu, hanzi, and nziina^ and those 
whose roots begins with m, as, mnandi, mtoti, take the nega- 
tive a or ha before their affirmative form (see table § 136.) ; 
thns, 

Inkomo a ibomvu, the cow is not red ; isango a libanzi, the gate is not 
wide ; isikumba a simnandi, the skin is not good. 

2. Other adjectives, having as subject a noun of the first, 
third, or sixth class, singular, express the negative in the same 
way, — taking the negative a or Jca before their affirmative 
form : thus, 

Umfana ka umkulu, or ka ^ mkulu, the boy is not large ; inkomo ka 
inkulu, the cow is not large. 

3. In all other cases, i. e.^ excepting the adjectives hanzi^ 
homvu^ and nzirna^ and those in m ', and excepting others 
when their subject is of the first, third, or sixth class, singular, 
— the negative is expressed by taking before it the negative a 
or ha^ and also the simple pronoun in addition to the ordinary 
prefix ; thus, 

Hole ka li likulu, the calf is not large ; ka li libi, it is not bad ; uluti 
ka lu lukulu, the rod is not large ; ka lu hide, it is not long ; abantu ka 
ba bakulu, the people are not large ; ka ba bade, they are not tall ; 
amadoda ka wa made, the men are not tall ; ka wa madala, they are 
not old. 

§ 407. A table of adjectives declined as predicates in the 
affirmative was given § 136. In addition to what has been 
said in the last paragraph, and in §§ 135., 136., it may be of 
service to give a specimen table of — 



AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 



209 



Adjectives 



as Predicates in the Negative. 





1 Umfana 

2 Ilizwi 


ka 'mkulu 


ka mubi 


ka 'mnandi 


d 

^ 


ka 11 liknlu 


ka li libi 


ka limnandi 


J 


j 3 Into 
j 4 Isitelo 


ka inkulu 


ka imbi 


ka imnandi 




ka si sikulu 


ka si sibi 


ka simnandi 


:z; 


1 5 Uluti 


ka lu lukulu 


ka lu lubi 


ka lumnandi 


m 


t 6 Umuti 


ka umkulu 


ka umubi 


ka umnandi 




7 Ubuso 


ka bu bukulu 


ka bu bubi 


ka bumnandi 




8 Uku ma 


ka ku kukulu 


ka ku kubi 


ka kumnandi 




f 1 Abafana 


ka ba baknlu 


ka ba babi 


ka bamnandi 


hi 


1 2 Amadoda 


ka wa makulu 


ka wa mabi 


ka wamnandi 





J 3 Izinto 
j 4 Izitelo 


ka zi zinkulu 


ka zi zimbi 


ka zimnandi 


ka zi zikulu 


ka zi zibi 


ka zimnandi 




j 5 Izinti 


ka zi zinkulu 


ka zi zimbi 


ka zimnandi 




L 6 Imiti 


ka imkulu 


ka imibi 


ka imnandi. 



Rem. — From the foregoing examples and table, it will be easy to see 
what are the corresponding forms in accessory clauses, where the neg- 
ative o, following the pronoun, takes the euphonic ng = nga, which 
also changes again to nge, by virtue of a coalescence between a and the 
vowel i from the substantive verb bi ; thus, ahantu aba nga bi badala, 
contracted, aba nge badala, people who are not old, or the people being 
not old ; so, ba nge bade, not tall ; izinkomo ezi nge zinkulu, cattle not 
large, or which are not large ; ezi nge zinde, which are not tall ; ba nge 
mnandi, they being not well ; zi nge bomvu, they being not red ; li nge 
banzi, it being not broad ; li nge likidu, it being not large. 

§ 408. When the, subject is of the first or second person, the 
predicate adjective is put in juxtaposition with the simple 
form of the prononn ; and, to promote perspicuity, or ease and 
fnlhiess of utterance, in accordance with principles already 
stated, the predicate adjective often takes also the same eu- 
phonic and prefix, which it takes in connection witli personal 
nouns {ibinuntu^ aharitu, etc.,) of the first class, singular and 
plural respectively ; thus. 

The adjective kidu, used as a predicate of ngi, takes the euphonic m 
= ngi mkulu, I am great ; used as a predicate of si, it takes the prefix 
ba = si bakulu, we are great. But banzi, bomvu, and nzima, and those 
adjectives whose root begins with m, take no prefix in addition to the 
pronoun, and require no euphonic ; hence, ni banzi, ye are broad ; ngi 
bomvu, I am red ; ngi mnandi, I am well ; si mnandi, we are well. 

§ 409. In illustration of remarks already made in the foi-e- 
going paragraphs, and for the aid of the learner, we give va- 
rious examples of the different kinds of adjectives, used as 
predicates with the first and second persons, in the following 
table : — 



FIRST PERSON. 



SECOND PERSON. 



SINGULAR. 

l^gi mkulu 
Ngi mdala 
]^gi mf utyane 
Ngi mncinyane 
14 



PLURAL. 

si bakulu 
si badala 
si baf utyane 
si bancinyane 



SINGULAR. 

u mkulu 
u mdala 
u mfutyane 
u mncinyane 



PLURAL. 

ni bakulu 
ni badala 
ni bafutyane 
ni bancinyane 



210 



AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 



FIRST PERSON. 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. 



SECOND PERSON. 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. 



Ngi mubi 
I^gi miide 
Ngi mulile 
I^gi bomvu 
JSTgi nzima 
ISgi mnandi 
JS'fi:! mtoti 



si babi 
si bade 
si bahle 
si bomvLi 
si nzima 
si mnandi 
si mtoti 



11 miibi ' 
n miide 
u miihle 
11 bomvii 
11 nzima 
11 mnandi 
11 mtoti 



ni babi 
ni bade 
ni bahle 
ni bomu 
ni nzima 
ni mnandi 
ni mtoti. 



Rem. — Some of the foregoing examples, with the corresponding Eng- 
lish, were given in § 137 ; thus, ngi mdala, I am old ; u mdala, thou art 
old ; ni badala, ye are old. 

§ -ilO. This kind of simple proposition (§ 409., where the 
adjective is employed as predicate of the first or second per- 
son,) makes the negative by nsing a or ka before the pronom- 
inal subject ; thus, 

A ngi mhidu, I am not large ; a si bakiUu. we are not large ; ka si 
mnaiidi, we are not well ; ka ni badala, ye are not old. 

Rem. — (a.) The second person singular often gives the semi-vowel w 
to the pronoun u ; or it elides the negative a of ka, leaving only k' as a 
sign of the negative ; thus, a ivu mkulu, or k' u mkulu, thou art not 
great ; a ivu mnandi, or ¥ u mnandi, thou art not well. So, a wu 
mude. or ¥ u niude ; a wu mdala, or ¥ u mdala. 

(b.) Or the pronoun u may be hardened, and preserved by the use of 
k instead of iv ; thus, a ku mdala, a ku mnandi, etc.; and then, by 
dropping the negative a, and depending upon fc as a sign of the nega- 
tive, we have (as above, only with a different pointing,) ku mdala, 
thou are not old ; ku mnandi, thou art not well. 

§ 411. A noun used as an adjective, where there is no adjec- 
tive of the required signification, is connected with its subject 
in one of three ways : — 

1. Its initial vowel being elided, it is put, like homvu and 
iizmia^ in juxtaposition with its subject ; thus, 

Ngi ^manzi, I am wet ; izembe eli 'butuntu, a dull ax ; izembe li 'bu- 
tiintu, the ax is dull ; umkonto u 'bukali, the spear is sharp ; se be 
Husizi labo abelungu, those white people are in a sad condition. 

2. It may be connected to its subject by the use of }ui, with, 
or have ^ thus, izembe li nohutuntu^ the ax is dull ; si naman- 
dhla^ we are strong ; uhuba a he nenkioatyii a godole^ so that 
he was numb aiid cold. 

3. It may stand as a predicate nominative, and take a eu- 
phonic copula, if required, between itself and its subject ; thus, 
into i yiholo, the thing is rough ; idhlala la he li yindilinga 
nencwadi i yisicaha, an orange was round and a book flat ; 
ilangala he li Icazitnula li yindilinga, the sun was bright and 
round. ^ 

§ 412. Where two or "more adjectives belong to one noun 
they ar^ put in juxtaposition one after the other, without a 
conjunction to connect them ; thus, 



AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 211 

Abantii ba kona baknhi bade ; 

The people of that place are large (and) tall. 

Izinwele zabo zimnyama zi ya kazimula ; 

Their hair is black (and) glossy. 

Izwe lilile, li nemiti enukiilu, emide ; 

The country is beautiful, (and) it has large, tall trees. 

Sa fika pansi kwentaba enkiilii kakulu, ende kakuki ; 
We arrived beneath a very large (and) very tall mountain. 

Ba puma be 'manzi be 'inadUlikidhliki ; 
They came out wet (and) wasted. 

Ilanga la be li kazimula li yindilinga; 
The sun was bright (and) round. 

Ba qala imikuba emibi eminingi ; 
They are beginning many bad practices. 

§ 413. The second of two adjectives in succession takes the 
conjunction na^ and, when the noun, to which that (second) 
adjective properly belongs, has been omitted ; thus, 

Wa tenga izitya ezincinyane nezikulu ; 

He bought large* and small dishes, i. e., some small and others large. 

U nezingubo ezimnyama nezimhlope ; 

He has black and white blankets, i. e., some black and others white. 

§ 414. In compound consti*uction, where an adjective be- 
longs to two or more subjects : — 

1. It may agree with the. nearest ; thus, 

E sa cabanga ukuba ukudhla nezinhlamvu za zimnandi ; 
Still thinking how food and fruit were sweet. 

2. It may agree with neither in particular, but with the two 
taken together and considered as a plural ; thus, 

Zimnandi inyama nesinkwa ; 

Meat and bread are sweet, or sweet is meat and bread. 

Nga bulala impofu na 'mpofu, za ba mbili ; 

I killed an eland and an eland, they were two. 

Rem. — When two or more compound nouns signifying grandfather, 
grandmother, etc., as uhabakulit, umamekidu, uyiseJculu, etc., are used 
in connection, the second element is sometimes separated, and put by 
itself either before or after both nouns (as ubdba and umame), yet with- 
out taking the usual prefix for the noun ; thus, iva bonga iiyise nonina 
kidu, he worshiped his grand father and (grand) mother, i. e., his pater- 
nal shades ; ng' etemba nina abakiti okulu nobaba nomame, I trust you 
our great both father and mother. 

3. When the several subjects, to which an adjective belongs, 
ar^ of different persons, the adjective commonly takes the plu- 



^12 AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 

ral form, and prefers the first person to the second, and the 
second to the third ; tlms, 

Wena nami si batya, <9r mina nawe si batya, or si batya tina 

wen a nami ; 
You and I are young. 

Ni mhlope wena naye nobabili ; 
Ye are white, thou and he both of you. 

4. The adjective may agree with the more remote' of two 
nouns, if that be the more jDrominent ; and, for courteous or 
other reasons, it may prefer the third person to the first and 
second ; thus, 

Ilanga nenyanga h kazimula li yindilinga ; 
The sun and moon are bright and round. 
Bancinyane bona nawe ; 
They and you are small. 

§ 415. The Isizulu has several ways of avoiding, as it were, 
certain difficult forms of compound construction (like some in 
the above paragraph (§ 414.), which, though correct and con- 
venient, are neither so common nor easy in this language as in 
the EngHsh). This is done : — 

1. By putting the adjective in juxtaposition and agreement 
with the first subject, and subjoining the others ; thus, 

Lihle lizwe lake, nomuzi wake, nezinkomo zake futi ; 
Beautiful is his country, and his kraal, and his cattle also. 

2. By giving the adjective the general prefix Ttii^ or ol^u^ as 
referring to subjects of all classes, numbers, and persons ; thus, 

Ba bona isikwebu samabele nombila, ba dhla, be zwa kum- 

nandi ; 
They saw an ear of amabele and maize, ate, and found them sweet. 

3. By repeating the adjective and making it agree with eacli 
subject ; thus, 

Umzi wake umkulu, nezindhlu zake zinkulu futi ; 

His kraal is large, and his houses are large also. 

Rem. — Rules and examples given in § 391., where one noun is " gov- 
erned" by several others, as also rules and remarks respecting the 
agreement of the pronoun §§445-449., may all be referred to, as being 
of the same class as those here given, and, hence, as affording each an 
illustration of the other. 

§ 416. The adjective is often used alone, the noun with 
which it agrees being understood ; thus, 

Tina abamnyama be si ng' azi ; 
We black (people) did not know. 



DEGEEES AND PARTICULAR WORDS. 213 

Rem. 1. — The noun to be supplied is sometimes known from the form 
of the adjective, or from g-eneral usage. Thus, when a native uses the 
adjective abamnyama, or cibadala, etc., alone, it is easily seen that it 
belongs to abantu understood. 

Rem. 2.— The noun to be supplied is often contained in a preceding 
clause ; thus, 

Imisebenzi yabo mikulii. Eminye si ya yazi, eminye si yi 
zwa iigenclaha ; 

Their works are great. Some we know, of others we hear by report. 

Tzinlilobo ezimbili zemali zi nga fana ; lapa ohmye hi Inu- 

gile, oliinye In nga liiiigile ; 
Two kinds of money may look alike ; while one is good, and the 

other is not good. 

l^jalo izinlilobo zokupendiika zimbili; okunye kn hmgile, 

okimye a kn lungile ; 
So there are two kinds of repentanqe ; one is good, the other is not 

good. 
U nga hamba n finyele kwe nga pambili imizi ; nga fika 

kwe nga pambili eniitatn ; 
You may go and reach villages on ahead ; I arrived at three on ahead. 

Rem. 3. — Adjectives taking the neuter or general prefix ku, or oku, 
are often used alone, referring not to any particular noun understood, 
but to some clause or general sentiment ; thus, 

Unipande n ya kn tnkntela nma e zwa okn njalo ; 
Umpande will be angry if he hears such. 

Si nesikati nezincwadi nabafnndisi ; oknknhi pezn kwako 

kwonke, Umsindisi ; 

We have time and books and teachers ; what is greater than all, a 
Saviour. 

Sect. 2. — Of Degrees,"^ and Particular Words. 

§ 417. a. In the Isiznln, as in other languages, a quality 
may be attributed to an object, Avitli different degrees of inten- 
sity. When no intimation is made in respect to this partic- 
ular, or Avhere the quality is understood to be of the general 
average standard, it is said to be in the positive degree ; thus. 

Into enkulu, a large thing ; ngi mnandi, I am well. 

h. We may either compare a quality as existing in any given object, 
with the same quality as existing in other objects ; or we may compare 
It with some assumed notion of the quality in general. When a given 
quality is represented as existing in one object with greater or less in- 
tensity than in another, or in the same object with greater or less 
intensity than usual, or with too great or too little intensity for a given 
purpose, it is said to be in the comparative degree ; and when it is rep- 
resented as existing in one object with the greatest or least intensity as 
compared with the same in other objects, or as compared with the 
average standard, it is said to be in the superlative degree. 

* For degrees of comparison in other Bantu languages, see Appendix 
III, 4. 



214 DEGREES AND PARTICULAR WORDS. 

Rem. 1. — Many of the following rules and observations apply to the 
expression of degrees by verbs, and adverbs, and by nouns, as well as 
by adjectives. 

Rem. 2.— The degrees of comparison are more freely interchanged 
and mixed, and often used with less precision, in the Isizulu than in 
the English. 

§ 418. Tlie comparative degree is of two kinds. The one 
denotes the intension or remission, the more or the less, of the 
qnahtj in view ; and generally compares one object with 
another. This may be called the definite comparative. The 
other denotes a remission or modification of the quality con- 
sidered, and has reference to the general average standard, 
witliout comparing one nonn or subject with another. This 
may be called the m(:/^?i2Y^ comparative. 

§ 419. I. The definite comparative degree is expressed in 
several ways : — 

1. By placing the nouns in contrast, the. noun compared 
taking the adjective in the positive degree ; and the noun, 
with which the comparison is made, taking one or more prepo- 
sitions, to show that the latter differs from the former in the 
intensity of the quality denoted by the adjective. These 
prepositions are — 

(ff.) The preposition 1'?^, f6»,yyw?2; thus, 

Le 'nkomo inkulu kwezinye ; 

This cow is large to the rest, i. e. , is larger than the rest. 

(b.) The prepositions ku na-, to with, i. e., m compirison 
loith / thus, 

Abantu se be tyaya umbila ; e wona u su mkulu ku nen- 
komo ; 

The people now prize corn, Avhich same is now more valuable than 
cattle. 

U mi kubi ku nokuba a lahle ingalo neso ; 

He is worse off than if he were to lose an arm or an eye. 

Loku ku ya ngokuba abavuingi ba ya tanda kakiihi olunye 

uto ku nokupenduka ; 
This is because most (men) love anything better than repentance. 

TJmtwana a nge be mncinyane ku nokulalela unina ; 
The child can not be too small to obey its mother. 

{c.) By means of the preposition j'^^'s?/ and its complement 
kwa^ above unto, i. e., more .than ; thus, 

Okukulu pezu kwa loku ; 
What is greater than this. 

Izono zetu zi yizinhloni kakulu pezu kwesono esi yizinhloni 

sa lo 'mfana; . 

Our sins are much more shameful than the shameful sin of that boy. 



DEGREES AND PARTICULAR WORDS. 215 

Izingelosi zi taiida ITtixo pezii kwokiitandana, iia pezii kwo- 

kntaiida ulnto olunye ; 

The angels love God more than they love one another, and more 
than they love anythmg else. 

2. By the use of a verb ; as, ukwaJihda^ to surpass ; uhu 
hula^ to grow ; iil'u gxila, to be deep ; uku pangisa^ to speed ; 
thus, 

Si ya b' ahhila ; 

We are stronger than they. 

Isifo sake sa kula ; 

He was worse, —literally, his disease increased. 

Se be lungela uku ya ekubujisweui oku gxilileyo ; 
They only prepare for a deeper perdition. 

3. By liaving both nouns before the mind and attributing 
the quality in its simple or positive degree, to one, without any 
direct reference to the other ; thus, 

Ku yipi inkomo enkulu na i 

Which, or where is the large cow? i. e., the larger? 

I kona imiziki, inyamazana enkulu, kodwa a i ngangayo in- 
komo, incinyane ; 

Here are imiziki, a large (kind of) game, but it is not equal to the 
cow : it is small, i. e., smaller than the cow. 

AYa ti, injuba ku 'Dingane i y' esabeka, iningi ; ba ti, injuba 
nawe u sa yi bangile, u nenjuba enkuln ; 

He said, the courage in Dingane is fearful : it is more than mine : 
they said, thou didst measure thy courage with his, and thine is the 
greater. 

Xgokuba u ya labia umpefumlo wake, a nga be e sa ba na 
'sihlobo ezulwini, a nga be e sa ba na 'sihlobo, 'ndao ; oku- 
kulu ukuba e nga sa yi ku ba na 'sihlobo ; 

For he loses his soul, and has not a friend in heaven, nor any where 
else ; and what is more, he never will have a friend. 

§ 420. II. The indefinite comparative degree is denoted also 
in several ways : — 

1. By the diminutive form of the adjective ; thus, isilwane 
esinijningana, a greyish animal ; into imhlotyazana^ the thing 
is a little whitish. 

2. By the use of the noun incozana as an adverb = a little^ 
rather, someichat, moderately ', thus, ngi mnandi incozana^ I 
am a little well, i. 6\, (sometimes) I am better, (sometimes) I 
am not very well. 

3. By the use of the adverb kodiua^ only^ someiohat, rather ; 
thus, i namandhla kodvKi^ it is rather strong. 

§ 421. The superlative degree sometimes maizes a compar- 
ison between several objects, and signifies that the object to 



216 DEGREES AND PARTICULAR WORDS. 

which the quality is attributed is distinguished by it above all 
the others, and hence that we have here the most or the least 
of such quality ; in which case it may be called the definite 
superlative. Or it may signify that a quality exists in an ex- 
tremely high degree, without instituting a direct comparison 
between one or more objects and several others ; in which case 
it may be called the indefinite superlative. 

§ 422. I. The definite superlative is denoted : — 

1. By placing in contrast the nouns compared, as in the 
definite comparative, by means of liit, Itu na-, pezu hwa-, or a 
verb, and apjDiying the adjective onlie^ all^ or nye^ the rest^ to 
that with which the comparison is made ; thus, 

Wa be mkulu ku nabo bonke abafana ; 

He was larger than all (or the largest of all) the boys. 

Ba nga cabanga kakulu ngomtwana wabo o gulayo, ba pape 

kakulu ngawe ku nabanye bonke bendhlu ; 

They would think more about their sick child, and feel more anxious 
about you than about all the rest of the family. 

2. By having several nouns before the mind, and attributing 
the quality either simply or in a heightened degree to one, 
without any direct reference to others ; thus, 

Lilhe leli 'hashi ; 

This horse is the most beautiful (of all). 

Ukulunga okukulu Utixo wa si nika kona ; 
The greatest good that God gave us. 

3. By the use of some noun or verb denoting extremity ; 
thus, 

Mina nga ngi ngo wamagcino abantwana ; 
I was the youngest of the children. 

]^oto e nga gcina uku lu tyo kaye ; 
And the last thing which I said to him. 

§ 423. II. The indefinite superlative, which might also be 
called the superlative by eminence, may be denoted : — 

1. By the neuter or general form of the adjective onl'e — 
lcwo7ike^ ivholly^ altogether ; thus, Utixo o peztdn Ttwoiike^ the 
most high God. 

2. By using the adverb laakidii after the adjective ; thus, u 
nesinehe esiJcidu hakulu, he is very careful, — literally, he has 
very great care. 

3. By means of the verb "fihu nqahct^ to excel, he sujprenne — 
a. The adjective taking the form of an abstract noun in the 

locative case ; xhus, 

Izinkomo za lo 'muntu zi nqabile ebuhleni ; 
This man's cattle are out of reach in beauty. 



DEGREES AND PARTICULAR WORDS. 217 

h. The adjective may take the form of the noun to which 
the qiiahty is attributed ; thus, 

Zinhle zi nqabile izinkomo za lo 'muntu ; 
Beautiful to the extreme are the cattle of this man. 

4. By a kind of irony, making use of the negative formula 
a si — 

a. The root of the adjective being used with the verb "^chit, 
ha, to be ; thus, 

A si ko nokubanhle lezi 'zinkomo ; 

These cattle are not beautiful, i. e. , they are exceedingly beautiful. 

h. Tlie adjective may agree with the noun ; thus, 

A si nokuba zinhle lezi 'zinkomo ; 

These cattle are not beautiful, i. e., they are, etc. 

c. The noun only may be used with the negative <t si ; thus, 

A si 'ndhlala nonyaka nje ; 

There is no famine this year, i. e., the famine is very great, etc. 

Au ! a si ko nokulibala ; 

Oh ! there is even no delay, i. e. , there is very great delay. 

§ 424. The quality or relation of smiliticde, which we de- 
ote in English by the adjective like, may be expressed, in the 
ulu, in several ways : — 
^ 1. By njeiiga ; thus, 

Lo 'mfana a be nekaya eli lungileyo njeng' elako ; 
(That) this boy should have a good home like thine. 

Ma si nga bi njeng' abadala betu ; 
Let us not be like our ancestors. 

2. By the causative form of the verb and the preposition 
hit; thus, 

Uma Utixo si m tandisa kwabazali betu emhlabeni ; 
If we loved God as much as we do our parents on earth. 

3. By the use of the verb tohii fana, to resemble ; thus, 

A mu ko umuntu o fana nezingelosi ngomzimba ; 
Nobody resembles the angels in respect to the body. 

Umhlanga wa kona u fana nezinti zesiswebu, a wu fani 

nowa lapa ; 

The reed of that place is like whip-sticks, it is not like (the reed) of 
this place. 

4. By the use of the verb uku ti, or uhu ha, in the potential 
mode ; thus, 

Ku nga ti inyoni, it resembles a bird ; ku nga ha uyenn, it seems to 
be the very same (person) ; u ya bona upondo ku nga ti upondo liven- 
komo, you see the horn is like a cow's horn. 



218 NUMERALS. 

§ 425. The relation of equality is generally denoted by a 
verb ; sometimes by a preposition : — 

1. By the verb uku lingana ', thus, 

Imiti i lingene, the trees are equal ; intambo i ya lingana noluti, the 
cord is equal to the rod. 

2. By the verb uhi Inngelana, or some other form of the 

same verb ; thns, 

Zi lungelene, thej are equal to each other ; obani nobani ba lungelene^ 
so and so agree together. 

3. Bv the preposition njenga, see §4:2^1.. 1.; also by ngcmga^ 
see § 426., 2. 

§ 426. Tlie quality or relation of nearness is expressed in 
several different ways, according to the -kind of approximation 
to be signified : — 

1. By citya^ or ])onsa^ in the sense of nearly^ almost^ or 
'''had like^^ — with the infinitive; thus, ha city'' iiltu fa^ they 
almost died; ngi ijons' uku wa^ I almost fell. 

2. By the preposition nga^ generally in its reduplicated 
form = nganga, in the sense of like, as, about ; thus, 

ISTa ke na bona ifu lotuli na ? izono zetu zi zingalo ; 
Did you ever see a cloud of dust ? our sins are quite like it. 

IN^gi ngangaye ; 

I am like him, i. e., I am about his age, size, or strength, according 
to the connection. 

I kona imiziki, inyamazana enkulu, kodwa a i ngangayo in- 

komo ; 
Here are the imiziki, a large (kind of) game, but not equal to the cow. 

Ba nga ba ngamakuhi amatatu ; 

They might be about three hundred. 

Rem. 1.— a supposed or contingent number, marked in English by 
the use of about, is sometimes put in the predicate nominative after 
uku ba in the potential mode ; but more frequently in the locative 
either with or without the potential nga ba ; thus, 

Ukubalwa kwazo kwa ku nga ba ikulu ; 
Their number might be about a hundred. 

Izitungu zi nga ba sezinkulungwaneni ezimbili — o/\ zi nga 

ba izinkulungwane ezimbili ; 
There may be about two thousand bundles. 

Rem. 2.— The preposition eduze, near, is sometimes used like nga, or 
nganga, and occasionally in the sense of ponsa. 

Sect. 3. — JVu7nerals. 

§ 427. The cardinal numbers from one to four are denoted 
by the numeral used as an adjective, — the numeral taking a 
prefix, like other adjectives, according to the noun to which it 
belongs '.thus. 



NUMERALS. 219 

Wa hamba namanye amadoda aniatatu ; 
He went with three other men. 

E'ga 'sikati ba be babili njena ; 
There were two or so at a time. 

Ba ya nika izinkomo ezintatu ; 
They give three cows. 

Iiidhlela yenliliziyo a yi yinye ; 
The way of the heart is not one. 

Rem, — "When the numeral is used as a factitive object (§ 434., 4.), its 
prefix is often omitted ; thus, 

Wa hlala izinsiiku za ba mbili ; 
He remained two days. 

Nga lilala iziiiyaiiga za ba ne ; 
I remained four months. 

IN'ga hlala iimnyaka wa ba munye — oi\ wa ba 'nye ; 
I remained one year. 

JSTga bulala inyati za ba mbili ; 
I killed two buffaloes. 

Si tanda ukii liamba ngenlilela i be 'nye ; 
We wish to go by one way. 

§ 428. The numeral five {hlcmu, nominal form isihkmu^) 
may be nsed either as a proper adjective, or as a noun for an 
adjective : — 

1. As an adjective / thus, 

Se be fikile abantu abahlanu ; 
Five persons have arrived. 

2. As a noun for an adjective ; thus, 

Wa f umana amadoda a yisihlanu ; 
He met with five men. 

]^gi ya ku zuza imali isihlanu ngenyanga ; 
I shall get five shillings per hiontJli . 

§ 429. From ^ix to nine the numeral may retain its verbal 
character (§ 140., 2.), and agree with its noun like other verbs ; 
or it may take the form of a noun (§ 142.), and as such be con- 
nected to its subject, like isihlann^ by means of the relative 
pronoun and the euphonic y ; 

1. In its verbal character; thus, 
'Amashiline a kombisa a lingene nenkomazi na ? 
Are seven shillings equal to a milch cow. 

2. As a noun ; thus, 

Wa tenga izinkomo ezi yisikombisa ; 
He bought seven cattle. 



220 NUMERALS. 

Sa f umana abantu aba yieitupa ; 
We found sist persons. 

§ 430. The niimerals from ten and upwards are nouns ; and 
in many instances their construction (as also that of numerals 
under ten, when they take the form of a substantive,) does not 
differ from the construction of other nouns used as adjectives. 
Indeed, any numeral having the form of a substantive may be 
used in most of the ways in which other nouns are used. 

§ 431. I. A numeral noun may be used as the nominative, 
whether as subject or predicate of a proposition : — 

1. As a subject nominative ; thus, 

A kona amashumi amatatu ; 
There are thirty, — literally, three tens. 

2. As 2i predicate nominative ; thus, 

Ekupumeni kwabo ba ti ba ba amashumi amane nesihlanu ; 

ngasemva wa ba kona omunye wa bala ngomqibelo woku- 

tatisitupa ; ngako ba ba 'mashumi amane nesitatisitupa ; 

When they came out they said they were forty -five ; afterwards 
there was another who signed at the close of the sixth (day), heiice 
they were forty-six. 

Tina, abe si ti e be si ka Keristu, si 'mashumi amane nane ; 
We, who have professed to be Christians, are forty-four. 

§ 432. II. A numeral, as a noun in apposition ; thus, 

U za ku biza izinkomo amashumi amahlanu ; 
He will demand fifty head of cattle. 

Kwa ti ukuba ba hlanganiswe endhlwini yokusonda, beka, 

amashumi amahlanu nantatu, isifazana ; 

It came to pass when they were assembled in the house of worship, 
see, fifty-three women, — or a company of women fifty -three in 
number. 

§ 433. III. A numeral, as a noun in the genitive ; thus, 

]^^g' amukele inkomo y amashumi amatatu ; 

I received a cow of thirty, i. e., a cow worth thirty shillings. 

Be za nemikunjana y amashumi a kombile na mine ; 

They came with boats of seventy-four, i. e. , with seventy-four boats. 

Eem.— A cardinal number used in this way generally denotes a series, 
rank, or order, and hence forms an ordinal (see § 144.) ; thus, indao yesi- 
hili, the second place ; umzi wesiJcomhisa, the seventh kraal ; sa fika 
ngosuku Iwesibili ; ngolwesitatu ba fika bonke, we arrived on the second 
day (Tuesday) ; on the third they all arrived. 

§ 434. lY. As a noun in the accusative, with either a verb 
or a preposition, and both as a suffering and as a factitive 
object : — 

1. With a verb ; thus. 



NUMERALS. 221 

Izindlilovii za ba 'maslnimi, kodwa a ngi landelanga kalile 

aiiiaslinnii ezindlilovu ; 
The elephants were tens, but I did not count carefully the tens of 

elephants. 

2. With a preposition ; tlius, 
Ba ja ilka iia kwamatatii ; 

They reach even to thirty (head of cattle). 

Lo 'iiisebenzi u lingene namasliumi amabili ; 
That job is equal to (or worth) twenty (shillings). 

3. As a suffering object ; thus, 

Kodwa a ngi landelanga kahle amashumi ; 
But I did not count the tens carefully. 

4. As a factitive object ; tlms, 

Izinsnkii zi be 'maslnimi 'mabili zi ve nga 'nlilanu, si fike 
isikati sokiihlangana ; 

(Let) the days be twenty-five, and the time comes for meeting. 

Tata izinkabi zi be isliumi ; 

Take oxen let them be ten, i. e., take ten oxen. 

Rem. — There are many examples somewhat similar to the above, 
where a rigid adherence to the form of grammatical construction 
would lead us to put the numeral under tlie head of predicate nomina- 
tive, u\e subject nominative being found in a pronoun, either simple or 
relative, in agreement with the noun enumerated ; while a regard to 
the logical construction would rather dispose of such numerals by 
referring them to the class of factitive objects, as above, and as further 
illustrated in the examples which follow ; thus, 

Wa piwa izinkomo inkosi zi 'mashumi amabili ; 

He was given cattle by the chief two tens, i. e., the chief gave him 
twenty head of cattle. 

U fiiiia amapaiinde a yisliiimi ; 

He wants pounds which are ten. 

IT ciipile izinyoni ezi yisikombisa ; 

He has caught seven birds in a snare. 

Sa fnnyanisa abantu be batatu ; 
We found persons being three. 

§ 435. Y. As a noun in the locative case ; thus, 

Ba ya lobolisa kakulu njalo, na semashumini ; ba ya fika iia 
kwamatatu fiiti ; 

So dear do they sell (a woman for cattle), even to twenty (head) ; 
moreover tliey go even to thirty. 

Ekulwini ku bizwa oshiline abatatu ; 
It costs three shillings a hundred. 

Rem.— Many of the examples before us show that a given number is 
often expressed by a noun and an adjective ; thus, amakulu amabili, 
two hundred ; izikombisa ezitatu, three sevens, i. e., twenty-one. 



222 NUMEEALS. 

§ 436. The ordinal nnmbers are denoted by the cardinal, 
put, generally, in the genitive ; but sometimes in juxtaposition 
with the relative of the noun specified : — 

1. By the cardinal in the genitive ; thus, 

Be za ku ganana ngomsumbuluko wokuqala wenyanga 
entya, Uniatyi, ngalolu 6 usuku ; 

They are to be married on the first Monday of the new month, 
March, on the sixth day. 

Kwa vela itole lenkabi, si batatu, ku yinsizwa yesitatu, e ya 

memeza ya ti, J^ansi inkomo yami ; 

There came a yearling ox, we being three, (of whom) the third was a 
young man, wlio shouted out. Here is my animal. 

Kwa hlalwa izinyanga ezimbih nenxenye yenyanga yesitatu. 
" Kwa pela inyanga leyo yesitatu, ku te ekutwaseni 
kwenyanga yesine, i se 'ncinyane, ya fika impi ; 

There was resting two months and part of the third month. * That 
third month ended, and at the beginning of the fourth month, it 
being still small (^. e., the moon), the commando arrived. 

2. By a cardinal number in juxtaposition with the relative 
of the noun specified ; tlms, 

Sa funyanisa abantu be batatu, ku ngumfana o 'bune ; 
We fell in with three persons, a boy making the fourth. 

Ku y itole eli 'butatu ; 

It is the third calf. 

Sa hlala izinsuku za ba 'mbili, sa hamba ngalo 'butatu ; 

We rested two days, we went on the third. 

§ 437. To denote the force of the distributive adjective each^ 
signifying two or more taken separately, use is made of the 
demonstrative pronoun ; thus, 

Yilowo umuntu u nokwahluka enhliziyweni yake njenga 
sebusw^eni ; 

Each man has (some) peculiarity in his mind as well as in his face. 

Kwa se ku ngulowo 'muntu e se hambe e funa abantu bake ; 
Then each mail went in search of his own people. 
§ 438. As to the distributive adjective every ; 

1. When not so much the single persons or things, as gener- 
ality, or one aggregate, is to be signified, the force of every is 
expressed' by onhe, with the noun in the plural ; thus, 

U ya z' azi izinto zonke na 9 Do you know every thing,— literally, 
all things ? 

2. When every is used not only to include the whole num- 
ber of persons or things, but also to signify each one of them 
taken separately, the aggregate is denoted by the use of onke ; 



NUMERALS. 223 

and the distribution or individuality, by the use of nye^ eliding 
the initial vowel of its prefix, and placing before it the prepo- 
sition ncja without contraction or coalescence (§ 442.) ; thus, 

Izinkonio wa zi nika ku 'zinceku zake zonke nga 'zinye ; 
He gave cattle to every one of his servants. 

Yebo, ba suka bonke nga 'banye, ba vumelana kalile ngabo 

ubnty wala ; 
Yes, they every one arose, and agreed perfectly concerning beer. 

§ 439. 1. The force of the adjective either is expressed in 
the same manner as eeiGh (§437.), that is, by the use of the 
demonstrative pronoun ; thus, 

Yilowo umuntu ku tin a a nga hamba ngenye indhlela uma e 

nga sa hambanga ngenye ; 
Either man of us can go either the one way or the other. 

2. The adjective neither is denoted by the use of na and the adjective 
nye, the initial vowel of the prefix of nye being elided ; thus, a ha 
yanga na 'munye, neither of them have gone. 

§440. The adjectives one, another; some, others ; any, no, 
none, are generally expressed by the use of nye. 

1. When nye denotes a single person or thing (in distinction 
from two, three, or more), the initial vowel of the usual at- 
tributive prefix {ct, e, or (9,) is elided, making the attributive 
prefix the same as the predicative, even when the adjective 
is used as an attributive ; and, again, generally, if the noun with 
which it agrees be in the genitive, or be governed by a prepo- 
sition, its initial vowel is elided ; and the genitive a, or the final 
vowel of the preposition is left, in its integrity, without elision 
or coalescence (§§ 393., Rem. ; 400., Rem.) ; thus, 

A hambe, umzi wa 'mtu -munye ; a hambe, (umuzi) wa 'mtu 

'munye ; 

(They say) he goes on (and finds) a kraal of a single person ; goes on 
(and finds) a kraal of a single person. 

Ba memeza nga 'lizwi 'linye ; 
They shouted with one voice. 

Kwa funyanwa isliumi 'linye ; 
There was found a single ten. 

AYa hlala kona inj^anga ya ba 'nye; kwa ti ngenyanga 

yesibili a fika amabuto ; 

He remained there one month ; and on the second month soldiers 
arrived. 

Ba sebenza usuku la ba 'lunye ; 

They worked one day. 



224 NUMERALS. 

2. But when nye is used indetinitely to signify some or any / 
or used to denote persons or things which are diverse or 
opposed, where one is contrasted with another^ and some with 
others ; and also where it is used to denote reciprocation or 
mutuality, it takes the full attributive prefix : — 

(<x.) Used indefinitely = some or any ; thus, 

Ku te ngolunye usuku nga ya Elovu ; 

It came to pass one day I went to the Ilovu. 

Zi kona izintaba emazweni amanye, ezi vut' uinlilo omkulu ; 
ngesikati esinye u bulala abantu nemizi yabo ; 

There are mountains in some countries, which emit much fire ; some- 
times it destroys people and their villages. 

(J.) Denoting diversity^ opposition^ or contrast^ = one^ an- 
other ; some^ others ; various^ different^ severed ; thus, 

Wa turn a amabuto ake elizweni elinye ; 

He sent his soldiers to another country. 

Amabuto ake a be hlasela ezizweni ezinye ; 

His soldiers were making w^ar upon other tribes. 

Amabuto a ku zwa, amanye a nanela ; amanye a dabuka ; 
amanye a jabula, ngokuba ngosuku olunye wa be bulala 
amashumi abantu ngensuku inye ; 

The soldiers hearing it (the death of Chaka), some were' thankful ; 
some were sorry ; others rejoiced, because occasionally (literally, 
on some day) he would kill tens of people at a time (literally, in 
one day). 

Izinhlobo ezimbili zemali zi nga f ana, lapa olunye lu lungile, 
olunye lu nga lungile ; 

Two kinds of money may look alike, while one is good, the other not 
good. 

Sa suka sa quba izimbuzi, omunye wa quba eza kwabo, nom- 
unye eza kwabo, sonke sa hamba ; 

We started and drove the goats, one drove theirs, another theirs, and 
we all went. 

Kwa ze kwa sa ngelinye ilanga ; 

Until it dawned the next day. 

(c.) Denoting reciprocation or mntuality^ = each other ^ one 
another^ nye is repeated and coupled by na^ and usually em- 
ployed with a verb in the reciprocal form; thus, 

Ea Iwa ba bulalana omunye nomunye ; 

They fought and killed each other. 

§ 441. 1. The Isizulu expresses somebody and anybody : — 



NUMERALS. 225 

{a.) By wimmtu ; tlms, 

U ye za umuntu, somebody is coming; a ngi boni 'muntu, I do not 
see anybody. 

ih.) By ubani ; thus, 

Wa zityo yeiia nokiiti n ngubani ; 
He thought himself to be somebody. 

Ma ku tiiiijwe iibani nobani ; 
Let somebody or other be sent. 

2. To denote something or anything, into is generally used 

in the affirmative, and tduto in the negative ; thus, 

Ngi f una into emnandi. I want something sweet ; a ngi boni 'Into, I 
do not see anything. 

3. Some, in the sense of a portion, is denoted by inxenye / 
thus, inxenye yezinkomo ha yi tabata^ they took some of the 
cattle. 

§ 442. The distributive numbers, singly, hy twos, hy threes, 
or 07ie hy one, tioo hy tivo, etc., are denoted by the preposition 
nga in full simple form, with the numeral in either its radical 
or its predicative form (§§ 438., 2. ; 440., 1.) : — 

1. In its radical form ; thus, 

Izinkomo zi liamba nga 'nye, the cattle go one by one, or singly ; zi 
hamba nga 'mbili, they go by twos, or two by two ; zi hamba nga 'ntatu, 
they go by threes. 

2. The • numeral may take the predicative prefix, that is, 
have the initial vowel of the attributive form elided ; thus, 

Izinkomo zi hamba nga 'zimbili, the cattle go by twos ; zi hamba nga 
'zintatu, they go by threes. 

§ 443. 1. Adjectives or pronouns used in a partitive sense 
often dispense with the use of a word to signify the w^hole ; 
and when a word signifying the whole is used, it is put some- 
times in the genitive, and sometimes in the accusative, unless, 
perhaps, what is here called the accusative may be regarded as 
a peculiar abridged form of the genitive (see § 384., Remarks 
2 and 3) ; thus, 

Ngi nga buza kivomunye wenu, I would ask one of you ; a mu ko no 
yedwa kuzo (izingelosi) owa de w' ona, no one of them (the angels) ever 
did wrong. 

2. The remarks upon the usual form and probable deriva- 
tion of the collective numerals, hohahili, hohatatu, hohane, etc., 
signifying, hoth, all three, all four, etc., (see § 146.), show also 
the manner in which they are used; — in addition to which, 
however, we give here a few examj^les ; thus, 

Ni za ku zi kmnbida zontatu na ? will you remember them all three ? 
kwa ku bikiva ku bona izindaba bobabili, affairs were reported to them 
both ; yeboke, laba ba wela bobane, ba hamba, yes, these crossed over 
all four, and went. 

15 



226 AGREEMENT. 

CHAPTER IV. 

SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 

§444. Kemaeks. — 1. Many of the rules for tlie construc- 
tion and use of the noun are equally apjDlicable to the i^ronoun. 
(§ 374.) 

2. Between the adjective and the pronoun there is often a 
sameness in the laws of agreement ; nor is this strange, since 
they are all based upon the one reflective principle which runs 
through the whole language, and gives harmony, strength, and 
precision, to all its parts. (§§ 415., Rem. ; 450.) 

3. The Zulu j)ronoun is not always rendered into English, 
since this would sometimes sound harsh and pleonastic j it 
would be wrong, however, to infer that there is any real 
pleonasm in its use as found in the Isizulu. (See §§ 307., 450. ; 
also Yerbs § 309.) 

Sect. 1. — Agreement. 

§ 445. A pronoun agrees with its subject, the noun or pro- 
nonn which it represents, in class, number, and jjerson ; thus, 

IJmfana u hambile, the boy he has gone ; ahafana ha hamhile, the 
boys they have gone ; inkosi i hambile, the chief he has gone ; umkonto 
wami, my spear ; izingubo zabo, their blankets ; leli ilizive, this coun- 
try ; lezo, izinto, those things ; izinkomo ezi tengiwe, cattle which were 
bought. See also §§ 155., 159., 161., 170., 176., and other parts of Chap- 
ter lY., Part II. 

§ 446. The pronoun sometimes agrees virtually or logically, 
but not grammatically, with its subject ; thus. 

Si zwile ngesin3'e esikulu (isizwe), Amangisi, ukuba ba be 
semnyameni ; 

We have heard of one large (tribe), the English, that they were in 
darkness. 

Kwa ti ngensuku eza dhlulayo, s' amkela incwadi ; 

It came to pass on a day which (with other days) have passed by, we 
received a paper. 

Rem. 1. — We sometimes meet with a kind of mixed construction, 
where the agreement of the pronoun is partly logical and partly gram- 
matical, or partly both together ; thus, 

Inkosi nenkosikazi ya funa ukuba ba bone umlungukazi 

nengane; ya ti a ba bonanga be m bona nmlungukazi 

nengane. Nembala w' aziswa umlungukazi nengane ; 

The king and queen wished that they might see the white woman 
and child ; they said they never had seen a white woman and 
child. And indeed the white woman and child were made known. 

Amakolwa a qalile uku tenga izincwele. Ba sebenza ngez- 

inkabi zabo ; zi ti izinsizwa ba zi kwele ; 
The believers have begun to buy wagons. They work with their 

oxen ; and the young men ride them. 



AGREEMENT. 227 

Rem. 2. — The speaker's idea sometimes undergoes a change, or he 
varies the construction of a sentence either designedly or otherwise ; 
by reason of wliich the pronoun may fail to agree with the noun ; thus, 

U ti ma i lilatyelwe lezi 'zinkomo ezi ka 'bani ; 

He says, let these cattle of so and so be slaughtered. — Here the 
inyanga (doctor) makes the ghost begin his demand by asking for 
it (one cow) to be slaughtered ; but Ibefore completing the request 
he puts the noun in the plural and calls for several. 

Kn no'okuba (izizwe) a z' azi ngemipefnmlo. A b' azi 

nkuba ba tengwa ngegazi na ngobulihingu. 

It is because the tribes are ignorant of souls. They (people) do not 
know that they were redeemed with blood and suffering. 

§ 447. 1. The general or neuter pronoun kio {kona, oku, 

loktc, etc.,) may be used in reference to a noun of any class, 

number, or person ; thus, 

Inkomo se kit ngeyenu, the cow since it is yours ; ma kit pume yena o 
gulayo, let him who is sick come forth. 

2. ITu, at the begmning of a sentence or clause, is often 
used in a manner called expletive^ and answers to the English 
use of there in the like situation ; thus, 

Kwa be kona abantu abatatu ; 
There were present three persons. 

Kwa ilka izigijimi ku 'bantu bonke ; 
There came messengers to all the people. 

3. Ku is often used out of politeness, or to avoid the appear- 
ance of impertinence, individuality, or offensive precision ; 
thus, 

Ku hanjwapi na \ 

Where is it walked, i. e. , where are you going ? 

Se u buyele endhlwini, se ku tatwa umkonto, se ku punywa 

nawo ; 

Then he went into the house, then there was taking the spear, then 
there was going out with it, i. e. , he took the spear and went out 
with it. 

4. ITu is often used like it in English : — 
{a.) To represent a phrase or sentence ; thus, 

Ku tiwe, izikati ezi citakele a zi buyi ; 
It is said, time wasted does not return. 

ISTokuba be hlekisa ku yena, a ku ngenanga loko enhli- 

ziy weni yake ; 

And when they laughed at him, that (their laughing at him) did not 
enter his heart, i. e. , did not affect him. 

Kwa tiwa, ma ba goduke ; 

It was said, let them go home. 



228 AGREEMENT. 

(h.) To represent the subject of a proposition when the 
nominal subject is placed after the predicate ; thus, 

Ma ku dhle oyise, ba si pe imfuyo eningi, ukuze ku sinde 
izingane zetu nati ; 

Let the paternal shades eat, and grant us much wealth, so that our 
children may be saved with us, i. e., that we and our children may 
escape death. 

Unia se ku tyo abaninizo njalo ; 

If the owners say so. 

Se kwetwasile ihlobo ; 
When the summer has set in. 

(<?.) To express a general condition or state ; thus, 

Ku nani lohu na 9 what of this? ku makaza, it is cold ; se ku mnya- 
ma, it is dark. 

§ 448. In compound construction where the pronoun stands 
for two or more nouns : — 

1. The pronoun may agree with the nearest ; thus, 

Izizwe ezinye nabantu abanye a ba kataleli imipefumlo 

yabo; 
Some tribes and some people (they) do not care for their souls. 

Rem. — Where there are two or more nouns, one of which (the second 
or last) is put in apposition with the others, the pronoun generally 
agrees with the first, but sometimes with the second or last ; thus, 

l^ga, hlangana nabantu, indoda nezinsizwa ezimbili ; ba fika 
ba ngi bingelela; 

I met people, a man and two young men ; they came up and saluted 
me. 

l^abantu abakulu bonke, izinduna ezinkulu za m hluka 
(Udingane) za m tan da Umpande ; 

And all the great men, the great captains (they; deserted him (Din- 
gane) and joined Umpande. 

Ma si bonge Inkosi yetu Uyehova o sezulwini ; 
Let us praise our King the Lord who is in heaven. 

2. The pronoun may agree with neither noun in particular, 
but with the two taken together and considered as a plural, 
either as persons or things ; thus, 

Inkosi nenkosikazi ba twalwa emahlombe abantu ; 

The king and queen (they) were carried on the backs of the people. 

Nembala ba hlangana Umanemane nenduna ; 

And indeed Umanemane and the captain (they) became associates. 

Kwe zwakala ku tiwa, amabuto, noMpande, namabunu ba 

yeza; 
It was reported saying, the soldiers, Umpande, and the Boers (they) 

are coming. 



AGREEMENT. 229 

3. When the several subjects are of different persons the 
pronoun generally takes the plural form, and prefers the first 
person to the second, and the second to the third ; thus, 

Yena nami si ya ku bala ; 

He and I (we) will write. 

Mina nabo si balile ; 

I and they (we) have written. 

Nina nabo ngi ya ni tanda ; 
You and them I love (you). 

Ku njani si misa isikati tina nabafundisi betu na^ 
How would it be, should we fix a time we and our teachers ? 

4. The pronoun may agree with the more remote of two 
nouns, if that be the more important ; or, again, if it be in the 
plural, and such that its pronoun may properly include the 
other (succeeding) nouns ; and, for euphonic or other reasons, 
it may prefer (the form of) the third person to the first and 
second ; thus, 

Abafundisi nenduna ba puma emkunjini ; 

The teachers and captain (they) came out of the ship. 

Bona nawe ba be hlutyiwe ; 

They and you (they) had been punished. 

Wena naye no ba ni hambile ; 

You and he (ye) will have gone. 

§ 449. Difficult varieties of compound construction, like 
some of the examples in the foregoing paragraph, are often 
avoided, as in adjectives (§ 415.): — 

1. By introducing one noun and a pronoun agreeing with it, 
and subjoining the others ; thus, 

Abelungu ba lika nezincwele namahashi ; 

The white men (they) came, and wagons and horses. 

Si te si fika a be se e mukile amahashi nezinkomo ; 
When we arrived (they) the horses and cattle had already gone. 

Kwa ti Udingane wa puma kwokuhlwa wa hamba ebusuku, 
namabuto ake, nezinkomo, nabantu bonke ; 

And Dingane went out in the evening and traveled all night, and 
his soldiers, and cattle, and all the people. 

Amageja si ya wa dinga nembeu futi ; 
We are in need of (them) picks and seed also. 

Sa yi tenga ingubo nobuhlalu ; 
We bought (it) a blanket and beads. . 



230 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

2. By making use of the general pronoun Itu^ wliicli may 
stand for a noun of any class, number, or person, and for any 
number of nouns ; thus, 

Abantu nezinkomo ku ya ku guhlulwa inkosi kwonke ; 
The people and cattle will all be removed by the chief. 

Amatole nezimbuzi kwa bulawa izimpisi kwonke ; 
The calves and goats were all killed by the wolves. 

Ku ya ku buba abantu nezinkomo ; 
People and cattle must perish. 

Amasi nesinkwa ngi ya ku tanda kwokubili ; 
I like both amasi and bread. 

Ku ngokwako umbuso namandhla nobukosi ; 
It is thine the kingdom and power and glory. 

3. By repeating the pronoun and varying its form according 
to the class, number, and person, of the noun to which it refers ; 
thus, 

Umbuso u ngowako, namandhla a ngawako, nobukosi bu 
ngobako ; 

The kingdom it is thine, and the power it is thine, and the glory it is 
thine. 

Sect. 2. — Personal Pronouns. . . 

§ 450. 1. The personal pronoun of the Isizulu is used not 
only as a substitute for a noun, but also as a complement to it. 
(§ 149.) Its office as substitute is really required only w^hen 
the noun itself is omitted : but as a complement, its office is 
equally important, whether the noun be omitted or not ; for in 
the latter capacity it serves to define the noun, to show its rela- 
tion to some other word, or else to show the relation of some 
notional word, as the verb, to the speaker. 

2. In its own form, the pronoun gives us, if not the body, at 
least an image or a reflection of the incipient of the noun for 
which it stands ; , and, in the simple form used as the nomina- 
tive, this pronominal reflection — this image of the noun — 
amounts, in many respects, to the same in the Isizulu, as verbal 
inflection in the English and some other languages. (§§ 444., 
307.) 

A— THE PRONOUN USED AS A SUBSTITUTE. 

§ 451. The Zulu pronoun used as a substitute for a noun, or 
to denote personality, does not differ essentially from the same 
class of words in the English and other kindred tongues. 

§ 452. I. The pronoun may be used in its simple form as 
the subject of a proposition ; and in either its simple or its de- 
fim'tive form as a predicate. (§340.) 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 231 

1. As a subject or nominative ; tlms, iigi ya tanda, I do 
love ; ha sebenza^ they work; si fih'de^ we have arrived. 

2. As a predicate : — (1.) In the affirmative (^ 316., Rem. 3.)— 
a. Singular; thus, 

Ku ngimi, it is I : or i mina, it is I. 

Ku nguwe, or u wena, it is thou. 

Ku nguye, or u yena, it is he. she or it. 

Ku yilo, liu ngilo, or i lona, it is he, she, or it. 

Ku yiyo, or i yona, it is he, she, or it. 

Ku yiso, or i sona, it is he, she, or it. 

Ku yiwo, or i wona, it is he, she, or it. 

Ku yibo, or i bona, it is he, she, or it. 

h. Fhiral ; thus, 

Ku yiti, or i tina, it is we. 

Ku yini. or i nina, it is ye. 

Ku ngabo, or i bona, it is they. 

Ku ngawo, ku yiwo, or i wona, it is they. 

Ku yizo, or i zona, it is they. 

Ku 3'iyo, or i yona, it is they. 

(2.) In the negative (§ 316., Eem. 4.) — 
a. SinguLar ; thus, 

A ku ngimi, it is not I. 

A ku nguye, a si nguye, a si ye, or a si yena, it is not he. she, 

or it. 
Ku nge ngimi, it not being I. 
Ku nge siye, it not being he, she or it. 

1). Phiral ; thus, 

A ku so tina, it is not we. 

Ku nge so tina, it not being we, etc. 

g 453. II. The personal pronoun, as a substitute for a noun, 
may be used as tlie object of either a verb, or of a preposition. 

1. In either its simple or the definite form, as the object of a 
verb ; thus, 

Ngi ha tanda, or 7igi tanda bona, I love them ; ha ngi tanda, or ha 
tanda tnina, they love me. 

2. In either its conjunctive or its definite form, as the object 
of a 2:)reposition ; thus, 

Ba buza kuye, or ku yena, they asked of* him ; wa beka kubo, or ku 
hona, he looked at them ; ngi ya sehenza ngayo, or nga yona, I work 
with it. 

J^ 454. III. 1. The personal pronoun may be used in either 

its possessive or its definite form as a substitute for a noun in 

the genitive ; thus, 

Inkomo yami, or inkomo ka mina, my cow ; izwi labo, la hona, or li 
ka bona, their word. 

2. {a.) The possessive pronoun usually follows the noun 
which it limits. But when prominence or emphasis is re- 
quired, it is placed generally before, but sometimes after the 



232 PEESONAL PRONOUNS. 

noun ; in which case, and also when the Kmited noun is 
omitted, the inversion or omission is indicated by introducing 
the initial element of the noun's relative, a, <s, or o ; thus, 

Owami umfana, my boy ; owami, mine ; owetu, or owa kiti umfana, 
our boy ; owetu, or owa kiti, ours. 

Elako itole, thy calf ; elako, thine ; elenu, or ela kini, yours. 

Eyake inkomo, his cow ; eyake, his ; eyabo, or eya kubo, theirs. 

Abami abantu, my people ; abako, thine ; abetu, or aba kiti, ours ; 
abenu, or aba kini, yours. 

Awami amatole, my calves ; awami, mine ; awa kiti, ours. 

(Indoda) elayo ikanda, his (the man's) head ; (amadoda) awawo ama- 
kanda, their (the men's) heads. 

Umuntu a nge zilonde ngokwake ukwenza ; 
A man cannot keep himself by his own act. 

Endlilwini yesikutali indhlala i ya lunguza, i dhlule, i ye 

kweyevila ; 

Famine casts a wistful look at the home of the diligent, passes on, 
and goes to the sluggard's. 

Li ti (ihlozi), loku izinkomo ezami u zi piwe imina ; 

Says he (the ghost), since my own cows were given to you by myself. 

Si ya funa uku zwa inhlalo yenu ; na ti si ya vuma uku ni 
tyela eyetu ; 

We want to know your mode of life ; and we also are willing to tell 
you ours. 

E ni yi zwile inhlalo yetu, ma si zwe eyenu; 

Since ye have heard our manner of life, let us hear yours. 

(ITmpande) wa m nika elake Umbulazi ; 
He (Umpande) gave Umbulazi his {izwe, country). 

(h.) When this form of the possessive pronoun is made the 
predicate of a proposition, the affirmative usually takes the 
euphonic copula ng (§ 387., Rem.) ; thus. 

Affirmative, ku ngokwami, it is mine ; negative, a kii si ko okwami, 
it is not mine. 

Affirmative, ku ngokwako, it is thine ; negative, a ku si ko okwako, 
it is not thine. 

{Inkomo) i ngeyake (umuntu), it (the cow) is his (the person's) ; a i siyo 
eyake, it is not his. 

(Ilizwe) li ngelayo {inkosi), it (the country) is his (the chief's) ; a silo 
elayo, it is not his. 

(Abantu) ba ngabayo (inkosi), they are his ; a ba sibo abayo, they are 
not his. 

(Izinkomo) zi ngezabo (abantu), they are theirs ; a sizo ezabo, they are 
not theirs, 

Ni ngabami, ye are mine : a ni sibo abami, ye are not mine, 

Ba ngabetu, they are ours ; aba sibo abetu, they are not ours. 

Ba nomteto wokuba, inkosi i nga yi pati into ezweni layo ; 

ku tiwa i nga yi pata i ba eyayo njalo ngezikati zonke ; 

They have a law to the effect that, the chief must not use anything 
in his own country ; it is said if he uses it, it is his thus forever. 



PEKSONAI. PRONOUNS. 233 

Ngoknba i nga lu pata uto se ku ngolwayo njalo ; 

For should he use a thing it would thus be his. 

IS^omuzi e ngi wakileyo ka siwo wami, ngo ka 'baba ; 

The kraal which I have built is not mine, (but) it belongs to my 
father. 

Rem. — The use of the possessive pronoun in its usual form, after the 
noun, may be called the analytic genitive, and conveniently considered 
as equivalent to the Latin forms, met, tui, ejus, nostrum, vestrum, 
eoruni, — English, my, thy, his, its, your, their ; while the use of it in the 
form which it assumes before the noun, or without the noun, may be 
called the inflective, and be considered as corresponding to the Latin 
forms, mens, mea, meum; tuus, tua, tuum ; suus, sua, suum ; noster, 
nostra, nostrum; vester, vestra, vestrum,— 'English, mine, thine, his, 
hers, ours, yours, theirs. 

§ 455. TV. 1. The definitive form of the personal pronoun 
is used chiefly for contrast, emphasis or precision ; but some- 
times as a kind of expletive, or for variety. Like the noun, as 
subject of a verb, it always takes the simjDle form of the pro- 
noun as direct nominative ; but as object of either a verb or a 
preposition, it may be used either with or without the simple 
form ; thus. 

Ma si ye 'ku funda, 'bandhla, si be nokwazi tina, si nga bi 
njenga abadala betu ; 

Let us go and learn, fellows, let us know something, and not be like 
our ancestors. 

Wa ti, ngi bona amadala amanye a luleme, mina se ngi 

kokoba ; 
He said, I see other old men are strong, while I am weak. 

Amanye amadala a luleme, mina ngi ya ngapi pansi lapa na ? 
Other old men are well off. but what am I coming to down here ? 

Ni nenhlanzo nina aba dhla igwababa la semzini ; tina si nge 

li dhle ; 

Ye are polluted (or have need of cleansing) ye who eat the crow of 
other kraals {i.e., eat amasi away from home) ; we ourselves can- 
not eat it. 

O nina aba pansi, amahlozi, nina obaba betu, nanso pela in- 
komo yenu, si ni nikile yona ; 

O ye who are below, ghosts, ye our ancestors, there, then, is your 
cow, we have given it to you, 

Inyanga i ti, ngi ya m pike! a mina lowo ; inyanga enye i tyo 
yen a, kodwa mina a ngi viimi ; 

The doctor says, I myself stand up for this one ; another doctor says 
it is he (who did the mischief), but I do not assent. 

Uma se ku tyo abaninizo njalo, po mina ngi se nokutini na ? 
Since then their owners say so, why what have I to say ? 



234 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Ma i kale pela inkomo yenu, i pnmese oknbi okii kimina, kn 
zwakale pela nkiiba inkomo yenii, e biziwe inina, i si 
lilatjwake ; 

Let your cow bellow on. and bring out the evil which is in me ; and 
so let it be known that your cow, which has been demanded by 
you, is now slaughtered accordingly. 

ITma se kn bizwe ibona njalo lokii aba kn bizajo, kn nga be 
kn se nqaba nobani na ? 

Since that which they demand was thus clearly demanded by them- 
selves, how could any one still refuse ? 

Sa fika Otngela ; amanzi ngi w' esaba mina ; leyo indoda 
ya yakile nga kona Otngela elilanzeni, ya bi w' azi yona 
amanzi ; 

We arrived at the Tugela ; I myself was afraid of the water : but 
that man had built there at the Tugela in the bushy section, and 
he himself knew the water. 

Mible kaknln imisebenzi Yenkosi, i ngabafnndisi yona ; 
Beautiful indeed are the works of the Lord, they, they are teachers. 

Ba ti, se si bambile elentnlo tina ; 

They said, we have already received the lizard's (message). 

2. The definitive prononn is sometimes nsed with the re- 
flective form of the verb to make out the reflective idea with 
force and ^^recision ; thns, lua zihainbela yena^ he went for him- 
self ; ngi zitengela onina^ I bny for myseK. 

3. The deflnitive is used also where two prononns occnr un- 
der the regimen of one verb, that which denotes a person 
being placed before the verb, while that which denotes a thing 
follows the verb, the former in the simple form, the latter in 
the definitive ; thus, loa ngi nil:a yona^ he gave it to me ; ngi 
m tyelile loho, I have told him that ; ha si fundisa zona^ they 
teach us them. 

Rem. 1. — Few if any good examples are to be found in the English 
language, corresponding exactly to the use of the definitive pronoun in 
the Isizulu ; but such examples abound in the French, where moi, toi, 
etc., are frequently used with je, tu, or with me, te, etc., like mina 
with ngi, etc., in the foregoing examples : thus, 

Moi seulf eus le courage, I alone had the courage. 

Us V appellent un honnete honime, moi, je V appelle tin fripon, they 
call him an honest man, I call him a rogue. 

Pourquoi ne travailleriez vous pas 9 je travaille bien, moi, I work, 
why should you not ? 

Me perdre, moi qui suis voire parent, ruin me, who am your relation. 

Moi, le parent du vaiLlant roi, je n' ai encore sacrifie que des traitres. 
I, the relative of the valiant king, have hitherto sacrificed none but 
traitors. 

II nepouvait le croire, lui qui se piquait d/une prohite severe, he who 
piqued himself on strict probity, could not believe it. 

Moi Jean, * * * J' etais, etc., Rev. i. 9. 

Moi, Jesus, j' ai envoye. etc.. Rev. xxii. 16. 

Rem. 2.— There are other points of analogy between the French and 
Zulu languages in the use of pronouns : — 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 235 

(a.) When the pronoun accusative is placed before the verb the simple 
forms ngi, ku, etc., are used in Zulu like me, and te, etc., in French ; 
but when placed after the verb the definitive forms mina, ivena, etc., 
are used in Zulu like moi, toi, etc., in French ; thus, 

II me connait, he knows me = u ng' azi. 

Je te donnerai, I will give thee = ngo Jcupa. 

Condais moi par ta justice. Ps. v. 8. 

Delivre moi de tous ceux qui me poursuivent, et garantis moi. Ps. 
vii. 1. 

(6.) The pronoun mina, wena, etc., are used instead of ngi, u, or ku, 
etc., like the French pronouns moi, toi, etc., instead ot je, tu, etc., — 
where they are employed by themselves, or without a verb, as in 
answer to a question ; thus, 

Ku toliwe ngubani na ? Mina. Who found it ? I. 

Qui est arrive ce matin 9 3Ioi. Who arrived this morning ? I. 

§ 456. Y. The reflective, or compomid personal pronoun is 
used to signify hi/, of\ or through one's self ; thus, 

Ulwandhle lu yinto enkulu, e nge welwe ngumuntu ngezin- 

yao zake ngokwake ; 

The ocean is a great thing, which cannot be crossed by a person on 
foot by himself. 

Si nga z' enza lezi 'zinto tina ngokwetu, unia si zamazania ; 

We can do these things we of ourselves, if we try. 

Rem. —For the simple reflective, signifying self as the object of a verb, 
see Reflective form of the verb, § 193. 

B.— THE PRONOUN USED AS A COMPLEMENT. 

§ 457. Remark. — To introduce both the pronoun and the 
word which it represents, as subject (or object) of the same 
verb, in English, except in aposiopesis, is not comuion ; hence, 
there is said to be £i 2:)Ieo?ias7)i in the syntax of the pronoun, in 
such examples as the following : — my trees they are planted ; 
the king he is just ; the fnen they were there, etc. ; for, in Eng- 
lish, the inflection of the verb {(ire, is, were, etc.,) together 
with the laws of collocation render the use of the pronouns 
{they, he, etc.,) superfluous, as complemental, or relational 
words. Such, however, is not the case in Isizulu. Here, all 
the relations of the verb to the noun, and to the speaker, are 
denoted by these substitutional words, the pronouns in some of 
their simplest forms. Hence, there is philosophy and import- 
ance, and nothing really pleonastic, in the rule given in the 
following paragrapli, and in other similar rules and usage 
wliere similar principles are involved. (§§ 444., 450.) 

§ 458. I. The simj^leform of the personal pronoun, or some 
modification of it, is always necessary as a direct nominative 
to the verh, even where the noun also appears as subject in the 
same proposition ; thus, 

Abaf azi ba lima ; 
The women they dig. 



236 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Iminyaka i ya dhlula ; 
The years they pass. 

Umoya uma u banjwa lapa, si nga fa masinyane ; 
The air if it be withdrawn here, we must die at once. 

Unwabu Iwa iika nga semva ; 

The chameleon it arrived afterwards. 

Rem. — In rendering such examples as the above, and all others of a 
similar character, into English, we, of course, in accordance with Eng- 
lish idiom, give only the noun a distinct rendering as nominative, the 
essential part of the pronoun being expressed by the inflection of the 
English verb. On the other hand, when we have only the pronoun in 
Isizulu. the noun being omitted, in rendering this pronoun into Eng- 
lish, we are obliged to make it supply material, as it were, for both pro- 
noun and verbal inflection. 

§459. II. The simple form of the personal pronoun is often 
used as the direct object of the verh^ even where the noun is in- 
troduced as object of the same. The place of the simple pro- 
noun, as object, is directly before the principal verb ; its place 
as subject, or nominative, is before both the object and the 
auxiliary ; thus, 

Abantu ba ya li tanda ilizwe la kubo ; 

The people they do it love the country of their friends. 

Abantu ba 1' amkela izwi ; 

The people they it received the word. 

§ 460. The use of this, the simple form of the personal pro- 
noun, in addition to its noun, as object of the same verb, 
obtains : — 

1. Where the arrangement of words in a proposition deviates 
from what is called the natural order of the leading parts, sep- 
arating the object from the verb on w^hich it depends; and 
especially, where the object is introduced first ; thus, 

Wa boneni, abantu nonke, araandhla ka 'Tixo o pezulu ; 

It behold ye, all people, the strength of God. 

Kwa ti ngomsumbulnko induna umkumbu ya wu sondeza 
osebeni ; 

It came to pass on Monday the captain the ship he it brought near 
to shore. 

Inyama ba yi ngenise endhlwini ; 

The meat they it carried into the house. 

Yebo, nati ubani a si m azi, ukuti u ya takata nje ; 

Yes, we too who (he is) we knoAv him not, that he is practicing evil 
i. e., we know not who it is that does the mischief. 

Udaba ba lu kuluma ba lu qede ngalo leli 'langa ; 
The news they discuss it and finish it the same day. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 237 

Wa ti, iimbila si wii limapi na 'i 
He said, maize where do we grow it ? 

2. Wliere it is required to specify and define the noun, by 
pointing it out as one before mentioned, or ah*eady known from 
the circumstances, or as one that is to be further specified by a 
relative or otherwise, — corresponding, in a great measure, to 
the definite article (the) in English, German, Greek, and 
Hebrew : — 

(a.) Specifying the noun as one before mentioned ; thus, 

Ba tenga umkumbu. ^ Njalo ba wu lungisa umkumbu ; 
They bought a ship. * And so they put the ship in order. 

Ba wu panyeka indwangu yawo. ^ Wa ti lapo u suse 
elwandhle ba yi kumula indwangu ; 

They hung its cloth (sails) upon it. * And when it had put to sea, 
they unfurled the cloth. 

Ya bema ugwai ; i si m qedile ugwai ; 

He snuffed snuff ; and when he had finished the snuff. 

{h.) As already known by the connection, by mutual under- 
standing, or by general notoriety ; thus, 

Kwa tunywa intulo uku ti, abantu ma ba fe. Abantu ba V 
amkela izwi ; 

There was sent a lizaril to say, let the people die. The people re- 
ceived the message. 

I m nukake umuntu pakati kwabo ; 
He thus smells out the man among them. 

(g.) As one to be further defined, as by a relative and its 
clause, by a genitive, or otherwise ; thus, 

Tina esi nokwazi, ma si m dumise Uyehova o pezulu ezul- 

wini ; 

We who have knowledge, let us worship the Lord who is above in 
heaven. 

Ba yi mbe indhlela i lunge ; 

They dig the road so that it may be straight. 

Abanye abantu, ba kweminye imizi, ka ba wa dhli amasi 

emizi ; 

Some people, at other kraals {i. e., at the kraals of other people), do 
not eat the amasi of the kraals. 

Ba ya s' azi isikati soku yi pumesa (impi) ; 

They know the time for sending out an army. 

Rem.— The noun which is thus defined (as in a., b., and c, above), is 
often more emphatically marked, by its taking also the demonstrative 
pronoun ; thus, ukuba ba zi zwe lezo 'zindaba, and when they heard 
that news ; abanye a ba 2;' azi kakulu lezi 'zindaba, some are not well 
acquainted with these subjects ; si nga z' enza lezi 'zinto, we can do 
these things. 



238 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

3. Where the name of a class is used collectively to denote 
all the individuals under it ; thns, 

Ba yi dnmisa inyoka ; 
They worship the snake. 

Kodwa na kalokn inxenye yabantu ba yi zonda intulo ; 
But even now some of the people hate the lizard. 

4. With vowel verbs, especially the verb azi^ in order to give 
prominence to the preceding word, and greater fullness to the 
phrase ; thus, 

Leyo inyanga i bi qamba amanga, a i kwazi uku bula ; 

That doctor has been fabricating lies, he does not know how to con- 
sult the oracle. 

A ku z' azi izitiyo za ngomso ; 

You know not the obstacles of the morrow, 

U nga z' esabi izitukutuku ; 
Don't be afraid of perspiration. 

§ 461. III. The Gonjunetive form of the personal pronoun 
is sometimes used as the direct object of a preposition^ even 
when the noun is introduced, immediately after, as object of 
the same. The conjunctive pronoun is thus used with the 
noun : — 

1. Where it is required to specify and define the noun as 
one before mentioned, or as already known, or as one that is to 
be further specified, — in which cases the pronoun may be 
rendered by the^ (like the simple form mentioned above, § 460., 
2.); thus, 

, Ba ya qala uku bona ngalo ilizwi li ka 'Tixo, eli ba kany- 
isayo ; 

They are beginning to see by means of the word of God, which en- 
lightens them. 

Uma u nawo umbila wako o funisa ngawo, u nga wu twala 

u zise kuwo lo 'muzi, esi hlezi kuwo ; 

If you have that maize of yours which you wish to sell, you may 
bring and place it at this kraal, at which we are staying. 

Wa ti, a ngi nabo abantu bokuzisa umbila lapa ; 

He said, I have not the people for bringing maize here. 

2. Where there is a deviation from the natural order of 
construction ; and also where the adjective oiiJce comes under 
the force of the preposition, either alone as a noun, or with a 
noun following ; thus, 

Ba ti, wo ! umbila si nawo na ? 
They said, oh ! maize have we it? 



PEESONAL PKONOUNS. 239 

Umsebenzi ka 'Tixo ii ya bonakala kubo boiike aba in tan- 
davo ; 

The work of God is manifest to all who love him. 

3. When the noun is introduced as a kind of expletiv^e, or 
an after-thought, as though the speaker had at first designed to 
use only the pronoun, but conduded to add the noun ; thus, 

Inhlanhla yinto enkuhi. " Kabantu b' azisiwe Umsindisi 

wabo ngayo inhlanhla ; 

Grace is a great thing. * And people are made acquaintad with 
their Saviour by it grace. 

4. When it is required to give prominence to the noun, or 
to bring it formally and deliberately before the mind ; thus, 

Ngi balile ngaso isineke ; 

I have written respecting enterprise. 

§ 462. ly. The possessive form of the personal pronoun is 
sometimes used along ivith the noun for which it stands, both 
being governed, the pronoun directly, the noun indirectly, by 
the same word. This obtains — 

1. Where the adjective oiil^'e precedes the noun, or is used 
itself as a noun ; thus, 

Emizini yabo hoiike abantu, at the kraals of all the people. 

2. Where the noun is added as a kind of expletive, or by an 
after-thought ; thus, 

Izinkomo zayo inkosi, his the chief's cattle. 

Eem. — The use of both (possessive) pronoun and noun, except with 
onke, is not common among ready earnest speakers ; neither is it to be 
recommended. The same remark holds, only with less force, in respect 
to the conjunctive § 461., 3. 

§ 463. Y. The definitive form of the personal pronoun is 
occasionally used v:ith the noim^ — sometimes after the same 
manner as other forms already noticed in the foregoing para- 
graphs, sometimes for empliasis, and sometimes in a manner 
that would seem to us pleonastic ; thus, 

Ba butana abantu ku yona inyanga ; 

The people assembled (and went) to that doctor {i.e., to him the 
doctor). 

I bulile nje yona inyanga ; 

That doctor (or he the doctor) merely tried to consult the oracle. 

Na ku yena Utixo ; 
And against God himself. 

U se kuleka ku wona amahlozi ; 

He now prays to them the shades. 

Uma se ku bizwa ibona njalo abaniniko ; 

Since it is thus clearly demanded by them the owners of it. 



240 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Sect. 3. — Relatwe Pronouns. 

§ 464. Remark. — The etymology and syntax of the relative 
pronoun are so interwoven, that many of the principles, per- 
taining to the latter, have been noticed in the previous discus- 
sion upon its etymological forms. (§§ 170-175.) But the 
peculiar, complicated character of this part of the language 
requires, in this place, a further development and illustration 
of those principles, together with a notice of others, of a more 
purely syntactical character. 

§ 465. 1. The relative, referring to a noun in one clause of 
a sentence, connects it with another, in which something fur- 
ther is stated concerning it. The relative is consequently 
employed, not only as an equivalent to the noun or pronoun 
which it represents, but also to connect propositions. The 
clause, or sentence, containing the antecedent, is called the pri- 
mary, or principal ; while that in which the relative is found, 
is called the secondary, attributive, or accessory. 

2. A relative and its clause may sometimes be reckoned 
together as constituting either the subject or the object of a 
(leading) proposition. Hence, by a kind of condensed con- 
struction, the two clauses are often brought well nigh into one, 
the relative being both subject or object of the primary clause, 
and subject or object of the secondary ; in which case the rela- 
tive answers nearly to the English what, that which, he who, 
etc., supplying the place of both antecedent and relative ; thus, 

I ya ku baty wa e tyotyayo ; 
The lurking shall be caught. 

Si ya ba siza aba zisizayo ; 

We help (those) who help themselves. 

Eza fika kuqala zi kulupele zonke ; 

What (cattle) arrived first are all fat. 

O wa ba tengayo u ya ku b' azisa lezi 'zinto ; 

Who bought them will make them know these things. 

O zingelayo Usipandhle ; 
Who hunts is Usipanhle. 

Kodwa o gulayo Usibekana ; 
Who is sick is Usibekana. 

O be hamba nencwele owa sEnanda ; 
Who went with a wagon is he of Inanda. 

Ma si londoloze o si nako ; 
Let us preserve what we have. 

A ku si sizi uku sebenza, uma si ya cita e si ku zuzayo ; 
Working does not help us, if we waste what we obtain. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 241 

Ini ukuba a nga be e sa s' azi na ? a si pe e si ku bizayo iia ? 

Why (is it) that he does not still recognize us, and give us what we 
demand ? 

Se si nikile pela e nii kn funayo ; 

Now then we have already granted what ye require. 

Rem. — When the relative offers to the mind a vague, indefinite idea, 
and has no antecedent, as in examples like the foregoing, it may be 
said to be used absolutely. Nor is this use of the relative peculiar to 
the Isizulu, but common in French, Latin, and other toDgues ; thus, 

Qui veiit parler sur tout, souvent parte au hasard, who wishes to 
speak on every subject, speaks often at random. 

Qui transtutit sustinet, (he) who transplanted (still) sustains. 

§ 466. The relative agi-ees with its antecedent in respect to 
class, and namber; and, to some extent, in respect to person. 

I. In respect to class, and nnmber ; thus, 

Si zwe nkn ti, zi kona izintaba emazweni amanye, ezi vnt' 
mnlilo omkulu, o ncibilikisa amatye, a pnpumele nga pan- 
dhle, a goboze njeng' amanzi ; 

We hear it said, there are mountains in some countries, which burn 
with a great fire, which melts rocks, which run over outside, and 
run down like water. 

Si nga yazi indlilela e ya ezulwini ; 

We may know the way which goes to heaven. 

II. In respect to person, first, second, and third, both singu- 
lar and plural. Most of these have their own specific forms ; 
but sometimes the first and second persons take the form of 
the third person, first class : — 

1. Singular — (a.) First person ; thus, 

Mina ongi hambayo, o?' o hambayo ; 

I who go. 

Kodwa inii ngedwa, engi za ku wela ngi ye lapo ; 

But it is I alone, who am to pass over and go there. 

Wa ngi nika mina incwadi o ngumniniyo wesibili ; 
He gave the book to me who am the second owner. 

I ya ku biza ku mina min' e ngi hlezi kona ; 
He will look to me who am living on the spot. 

{b.) Second person ; thus, 

Wena o hambayo ; 
Thou who goest. 

Wena owa fika izolo ; 

Thou who didst arrive yesterday. 

(c.) Third person ; thus, 

Yena o zondayo u ya zizonda ; 
He who hates hates himself. 
16 



242 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Usatani o njengebubesi eli bodlilayo, e hamba njalo, e fiina a 
nga m biibisajo ; 

Satan, who, like a roaring lion, goetli about, seeking whom he may 
devour. 

I ya ku biza ku yena o hlezi ezweni layo ; 

He will demand (money) of him who lives on his farm. 

Kii ngnmoya o pepeta imiti ; 
It is the wind which blows the trees. 
2. Plural — (a.) First person ; thus, 

Tina esi bambayo, or tina aba liambayo ; 
We who go. 

Tina esi nokwazi, ma si m dninise Uyebova o pezulu ezul- 
wini ; 

We who have knowledge, let us worship the Lord who is above in 
heaven. 

Wo ! lukulu iitando hi ka 'Tixo, oln pezu kwetu tina aba m 

hlabayo ; 

Oh, how great is the love of God, which is over us who offend him ? 

Inkosi ya si xotya tina aba be hlezi kona {o?' tina esa be si 

hlezi kona) ; 
The chief removed us who were living there. 

I ya ku biza na ku tina tin' esi hlezi ezweni layo ; 
He will demand (money) also of us who live on his land. 

{h.) Second person; thus, 

"N"ina eni hambayo, or nina aba hambayo ; 
Ye who go. 

]^i zwe nina aba kiti eni ngi sindisileyo ; 
Hear ye our (gods) who have saved me. 

Nina ab' onileyo kunye ni nga be ni s' enze njalo ; 
Ye who have done wrong once do so no more. 

Si ya ku funda kinina nin' eni hlezi kona kwiti ; 
We will learn from you who live here with us. 

(e.) Third person ; thus, 

Ba kona abafana aba ya ku funda ; 
Here are boys who are going to learn. 

Umsebenzi ka 'Tixo u ya bonakala kubo bonke aba m tan- 
dayo, nabo aba m zondayo ba ya wu bona nabo ; 

The work of God is manifest to all those who love him, and those 
who hate him see it also. 

§ 467. Often the basis of the relative, and sometimes its 
complement, is attracted or turned aside from its natural and 
most exact agreement with the noun to which it refers. This 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS 243 

occnrs occasionally in all forms, bnt most frequently in the rel- 
ative for the third person, singular and plnral, first class, o and 
ctba ', and may, for the most part, and in some measure, be 
referred to one or the other of the following causes : — 

1. The very incidental or independent character of the rela- 
tive clause, when e takes the place of o or a ; thus, 

Bonke e ngi ba tandayo : 
All whom I love. 

Ya ngi biza mina e nga be ngi hlezi kona ; 
He called me who was (or while I was) sitting there. 

Umfana e ngi mu fundisileyo ; 
The boy whom I have taught. 

Umuntu e nga m bizayo ; 
The person whom I called. 

2. The potential or subjunctive character of the clause, when 
<i often takes the place of 6> or ^ / thus, 

Usatani, e funa a nga m bubisayo ; 

Satan, seeking whom he may devour. (§ 466., II., 1., c.) 

Yena u ngumsindisi umuntu a nga zuza ukupila kuye , 
He is the Saviour from whom a man may receive life. 

3. The influence of the subsequent or some other word ; 
thus, 

Umuntu e ngi bonile induna yake ; 
The person whose captain I saw. 

Indaba o be u ngi tyela yona ; 
The story thou wast telling me. 

Into o ya ku sizwa ngayo ; 

A thing by which thou wilt be aided. 

Se si nikile pela e nu ku funayo (e nu ku = o ni uku) ; 
So then we have given what you want. 

Okuhle pela e nu ku bizileyo ; 

What you have required is good of course. 

Umuti wenu e nu funayo (e nu = o ni u) ; 
Your medicine which you want. 

ISTanku umbila e su funayo (e su for o si u, or o si wu) ; 
Here is the maize which we require. 

Kwa be ku yincwadi ka 'Tixo, o lona 'luto Iwa sinda naye 
emkunjini ; 

It was the book of God, which was the only thing that escaped with 
him from the ship, i. e. , which was the only thing, except his own 
life, which was saved from the wreck. 



244 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 468. It has been remarked (§§ lYO., lYl.). that the relative 
pronoun consists of two parts, the relative particle a^ e^ or 6>, 
and the personal pronoun, or the basis and its complement. 
The compleniental, or pronominal part is subject to all the 
varieties of form, and kinds of usage, wliich pertain to the per- 
sonal pronoun. In the nominative, the basis and its comple- 
ment are usually joined in one word ; but in all the oblique 
cases they are separated, the relative portion always standing, 
as in the nominative, at the head or beginning of the acces- 
sory clause, while the pronominal portion comes in afterwards, 
according to its form, as simple, conjunctive, possessive, or 
definitijVe, and according to its use, as the object of a verb, or 
of a preposition. 

Rem. — The Isizulu is not the only language in which the relative 
takes the personal pronoun as a complement to make out a complete 
relative pronoun; thus, in the Arabic, they say :— " Man who he is 
weak, has need of help from God ;" " the man lahom I see him, is one 
of my friends ;" " the man whom I labor for him does not generously 
requite my pains." 

§ 469. I. As the sttbject of the accessory clause, the relative 
pronoun, both basis and complement, stands together in its in- 
tegrity at the head of the accessory clause ;• thus, 

Umdabuko wabantu aba hlezi kona ; 
The custom of the people who live there. 

Si zwile ukuhlala kwezizwe ezi nge nayo incwadi ka 'Tixo ; 

We have heard the condition of tribes which have not the word of 
God. 

§ 470. II. As an object, the basis of the relative pronoun 
stands at the head of the accessory clause, while the comple- 
ment takes its place before or after the verb, or after a prepo- 
sition, in the same manner as the personal pronoun used as an 
accusative. (§ 453.) 

1. (a.) When the relative is an object of an active transitive 
verb, and the complement consists of the simple form of the 
personal pronoun, that complement stands just before the prin- 
cipal verb ;. thus, 

]N"emali yabo, e ba be be yi pete, ya salela emanzini ; 

And their money, which they had brought, remained in the water. 

Kodwa uto e ngi Iwaziyo, ng' azi izingubo netole ; 
But the thing which I know, I know blankets and a calf. 

Sa ti lapo si balekayo, sa teleka pezu kwenye impi, e be si 

nga yi boni ; 
And as we were fleeing, we stumbled upon another commando, of 

which we were ignorant, — literally, which we had not it seen. 

Zi kona izinto ezweni, e si nga zanga si zi bone ; 

There are things in the world, which we have never (them) seen. 



EELATIVE PRONOUNS. 245 

2. (5.) The relative, being tlie object of a verb, often takes 
the definitive form of the personal prononn as complement, 
either for emphasis and precision, or else because the place of 
the simple form is pre-occupied bv another pronoun, as when 
the verb takes two accusatives ; in which cases the dehnitive, 
of course, foUoics the verb ; thus, 

JSTgi ya bonga kakulu ngawo umcako o wa ngi pa wona ; 

I thank you much for the clay which you gave me (it). 

Indaba o be ngi tjela yona ; 

The story which you were telling (it to) me. 

3. The relative used as the object of a preposition takes 
either the conjunctive or the definitive form of the personal 
pronoun as complement : — 

{co.) The conjunctive as complement ; thus, 

Ubaba wa be kona, lo e ngi naye kaloku njena ; 

My father was there, the same with whom I am still living. 

Umkumbu e la li kuwo, wa guqulwa inhlambi ; 

The boat in which he was, was capsized by a wave. 

A ke ni beke lapa ubumnyama e si vela kubo, obu sa bamba 

abetu, be bu si bambile nati ; 

Come ye see here the darkness out of which we come, which still 
holds our kindred, which (formerly) held us also. 

Umbila wako o funisa ngawo ; 

Your maize with which you wish to trade, or for which you want 
pay. 

]^ga m bamba e ngi hamba naye ; 

I caught hold of him with whom I went. 

Labo o ku nga tyiwongo 'Into ngabo kuye ba ya ku bona ; 
Those of whom nothing was said to him shall see. 

Labo e wa be e ngQ zwanga 'Into ngabo ; 
Those of whom he had heard nothing. 

Umuntu o kwa shumayela indodana yake ngaye ; 
The person of whom his son spoke. 

JS^gesikati e ba ya ku fika ngaso abantu ; 
By the time at which the people will come. 

(b.) The definitive as complement ; thus, 

Lowo umuzi e be ngi ku wona ; 
That kraal at which I was. 

U tandiwe ngabo 'azeka ku bona ; 

He is beloved by those to whom he is known. 



246 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 4Y1. III. The relative denoting possession is expressed, 
Bometimes by the use of the relative, both basis and comple- 
ment, before the noun possessed ; sometimes bj the relative 
(basis) before the noun, and the possessive (complement) after 
it ; and sometimes by the use of the possessive pronoun alone : — 

1. Possession denoted by the relative before the noun, or at 
the head of the clause ; thus, 

Umuntu o 'nkomo ni ya ku zi bona ; 
The person whose cattle you will see. 

Sa dhlula ku 'mlungu o 'nkomo ziningi ; 

We passed by the white man whose cattle are many. 

2. Possession denoted by the relative before the noun, or at 
the head of the clause, and the possessive after the noun ; thus, 

Umuntu o 'nkomo zake zi sEnanda a mu ko yena ekaya, u 
kwa Zulu ; 

The person whose cattle are at Inanda is not at home himself, he is 
in Zululand. 

Inkosi e ngi hlezi ebusweni bayo i ya ngi pata kahle ; 
The chief in whose presence I live is treating me well. 

Umuntu e ngi funa inkabi yake ; 
The person whose ox I want. 

Inkosi o wazi abantu bayo ; 
The chief whose people thou knowest. 
Umlungu e ni yizinceku zake ; 
The white man whose servants ye are. 

Na ku yena Utixo, o 'zimemezelo zake si z' apula ; 
And against God himself, whose commands we break. 

Uyehova o ngi ngowake, o ngi m konzayo ; 
The Lord whose I am, and whom I serve. 

3. Possession denoted by the use of the possessive pronoun 
alone (the relative being omitted) ; thus, 

Indoda igama layo li ngUmbopa ; 
A man whose name is Umbopa. 

§ 472. The basis, or incipient portion of the relative pronoun 
is sometimes omitted, the relative being understood, or denoted 
by the personal pronoun alone ; thus, 

Ngi saba ngaye, ngokuba umuntu ka si hlangani naye ; 

I am afraid of him, because (he is) a person with whom we are not 
on good terms, — literally, a person we are not on good terms with 
him. 

Rem. 1, — Instead of supposing an omission of the relative, in some 
cases it may be more exact and proper to speak of the clause as inci- 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 24:7 

dental, or absolute. Thus, in the closing example, in the last para- 
graph (§ 471., 3.), instead of saying — " a man whose name is Umbopa," 
it may be more proper to say — " a man his name (being) Umbopa ;" — 
such emphatic brevity of expression and encasement of an incidental 
clause being in accordance with the genius of the language. (See 
§§372., 221., 4., Rem. 1.) 

Rem. 2.— Where the relative is in the oblique case, its basis standing 
at the head of the clause, is often absorbed and lost in the subject of 
the verb ; and sometimes the subject is absorbed and lost in the rela- 
tive ; thus, 

Yena u ngUmsindisl uinniitii a nga zuza iikiipila kiije ; 
He is the Saviour from whom a man may obtain life. 

A kii ng' azisanga yena o za kii m tuma nami ; 

Thou hast not let me know him whom thou wilt send with me. 

Umiintii o m bonileyo ; 

The person whom thou hast seen. 

Umiiti o wa wu ganlayo ; 

The tree which thou didst cut down. 

Into o ya ku sizwa ngajo ; 

A thing by which thou wilt be aided. 

§ 473. The verbal predicate of a relative clause often takes 
the suffix yo or ko^ especially where it is used as an adjective ; 
or as a noun ; or in any way independent of grammatical con- 
struction, as in address, in titles or headings, and signatures ; 
or to distinguish the affirmative and negative forms of the 
verb ; and sometimes as an expletive ; thus, 

Umkumbu wa wu nenduna e lungileyo ; 
The ship had a good captain. 

Abalungileyo ba ya ku sindiswa ; 
The good shall be saved. 

Abantu aba nga fundiyo aba sebenzi kakulu ; 
People who do not learn do not work much. 

Uhlobo Iwenu olu tandayo ; 
Your affectionate kindred. 

Inyanga i m tyela amazwi a wa cabangayo ; 
The doctor tells him words which he has in his mind. 

Sect. 4. — Demonstratwe Pronouns. 

§ 474. The demonstrative pronoun combines, in a great 
measure, the properties of a personal pronoun and a definite 
article. It is used to direct attention to the noun to which it 
belongs, and thereby render it definite. Like other pronouns, 
it agrees with the noun in respect to class and number ; but is 
used to represent nouns of the third person only, since it is 



248 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

always employed by the first person to point out some object 
to the second ; thus, 

Lo 'muntu, this person ; leso 'sizwe, that tribe ; lowaya umuti, that 
tree yonder ; izizwe lezi, these trilpes. 

§ 4Y5. The demonstratives denoting this and these^ that and 
those, that and those yonder, according to the class and num- 
ber of their noun, are given in the table of demonstrative pro- 
nouns (§ 179.), — the use of which may be further illustrated by 
the following examples : — 

1. This and these / thus, 

Se u sakazwa umswani ezindhlwini za lo 'muntu ; 

Already are the contents of the cow's stomach strewn upon the 
houses of this man. 

Njalo nami ngi ya tanda izindaba za le 'ncwadi ya le 

'nyanga; 

So I also like the news of this paper of this month. 

Ekuqaleni, lapa, izinto zabantu zi be zi zihlalela zona, na 
semacekeni, umninizo a nga bi na 'valo 'luto ; kodwa nga 
lolu 'suku se ku ngokunye ; 

At first, here, people's things were accustomed to stop by them- 
selves, even in the yards, the owner thereof having no fear of any- 
thing ; but at this day it is otherwise. 

2. That and those / thus, 

Kwa ti ngensuku eza landela lezo ; 

It came to pass on a day which succeeded those. 

Kwa ba isikumbuzo esinye si ka 'Yehova leso ; 

That was another memorial of the Lord. 

(Inyanga) i tize, uyise ihlozi li biza inkomo leyo e tize, e 
semehlweni na ku wena ; 

He (the doctor) says, the paternal shade requires that particular cow, 
which is also highly esteemed by you. 

Kwa ti nga semva kwa linywake, a ze a dliliwa lawo 'ma- 
bele ; 

It came to pass afterwards they planted again, and then that corn 
was consumed. 

3. That and those yonde?' ; thus, 

(Inyanga) i si ti, unyoko (ihlozi) u ti, u kwenzelani lokuya 
na kuye na ? 

He (the doctor) says, thy maternal shade inquires, why do you do 
that yonder even to her ? 

Rem.— In respect to the place of the domonstrative pronoun, great 
latitude is allowed, as may be seen in the foregoing examples. 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 249 

§ 476. The demonstrative is sometimes used to signify each ; 
sometimes, the same ; and sometimes, he^ she, they, etc., as an 
antecedent to a relative. 

1. Each ; thus, 

Se ngi za ku ni nika izwe lenu, ku be ngulowo a zakele 

kahle ; 

I am now about to give you your own district, that each may set up 
happily for himself. 

Kwa be ku kona abafundisi etuneni ; kwa ba wulowo wa ku- 
luma kahle kumi ; 

There were (several) ministers at the grave ; and each spoke kindly 
to me, 

2. Same ; thus, 

Udaba ba lu kuluma ba lu qede ngalo leli 'langa ; 

They discuss a subject and finish it by the same sun— on the same 
day. 

3. He, she, they, etc., when followed by a relative pronoun ; 
thus, 

U tike lo o gulayo, thus saith he who is sick. 

Sect. 5. — Interrogative Pronouns. 

§ 477. The interrogative uhani f who % is applied to per- 
sons ; ni f what ? mostly to things, but sometimes to persons ; 
and pi f who? or which ? to both persons and things. 

§ 478, The construction of the interrogative ubani is, for 
the most part, the same as that of a proper noun, the name of 
a person, (see §182.) ; thus, 

E^gubani o sibukule umpongolo na ? 
Who has uncovered the box ? 

Ngi ya ku kokelwa ngubani na ? 
By whom shall I be paid ? 

Se be ti abantu, u bu tyelwe obani na ? 
Then the people say, by whom were you told ? 

Izinkomo zi ka 'bani na ? 
Whose cattle are they ? 

Rem. — This pronoun is sometimes used in an indefinite manner, sig- 
nifying, some one, any one, whosoever ; thus, pendula futi wena 'bani, 
reply thou also Mr. So-and-so ; ba si fundisa ukuba Unkulunkulu wu- 
ba7ii, they teach us who Unkulunkulu is. 

§ 479. When the interrogatives ni and pi are applied to 
nouns, they generally take a prefix in the same manner as 
adjectives (see §§ 180'., 181., 183.) ; thus. 



250 INTERKOGATIVE PRON^OUNS. 

Ummitu miini lowo o hambajo na ? 
What person is that passing along ? 

Ni ya f una iiniimtu omupi na ? 
Which person do you want ? 

Uimipi wa laba 'bantwana wa ke wa bii bona nbnblungn na ? 
Which of these children ever saw pain ? 

Rem. — The interrogatives ni and pi are sometimes used in an indirect, 
indefinite manner ; thus, 

A ke ni tyo-^i zweke amazwi enyanga, nkuba i tizeni na ? i 

bule enze njani na ? 

Come tell us, let us hear the doctor's v^ords, what he said, and how 
he performed. 

A s' azi o sa ku f unajo, ukuba u se n funa oknpi na ? 

We do not know what you still want, whether you still want any 
thing. 

Ma si zwe eyenn (inlilalo), ukuba ni dlilani na ? ni funda 

'ntoni ila 'l nokuba amakolwa a nga kanani na ? 

Let us know your (estate), what you eat? what you read? and how 
many believers there are ? 

A s' azi uma w' apuka nga sipi isikati ; 
We know not at what time it broke. 

§ 480. Used as the object of a verb, the general interroga- 
tive ni f what % requires no prefix, being itself suffixed to the 
verb, upon which it has the effect to carry the accent forward 
to the verb's final syllable — that which immediately precedes 
the pronoun ; thus, 

I tizeni inyanga na ? 

What says the doctor ? 

(Inyanga) i ti, u nehlozi, u bizwa uyise, u ti, u m tukeleni 

ngokwenza oku njeyana na 'i 

He (the doctor) says, he is possessed of a ghost, he is called by his 
paternal shade, saying, why does he curse him by behaving there 
in such a manner ? 

Umuzi lo wakiwe uwena, baba ; se ni vumelani pela ukuba 

nu citye umuzi wenu na ? 

This town was built by thee, father ; why, then, do you consent to 
consume your own town ? 

Po mina ngi se nokutini na ? 

Why, now, what have I to say ? 

Rem. — This pronoun is sometimes suffixed to the noun which it qual- 
ifies, in the same way as to the verb by which it is governed ; thus, ni 
pete ^ntoni na f what thing do you bring ? 

§ 481. Used with the prefix i (= ini)^ or governed by the 
preposition nga (= ngani), this pronoun is often employed as 



AGREEMENT, COMBINATION AND EXPANSION. 251 

an adverb, signifying why f whether f whether or not f how f 

thus, 

ISTina ka ni zwa ini ukuba i gijime (inyanga) ngomhlola na? 

Do ye not see that he (the doctor) ran according to the omen {i. e., 
spoke the truth) ? 

Ma si bone ngako, nma kn fnnwe ini na nknba a sinde ; 
Let us see then, whether or not it is sought that he may recover. 

Zi ti izituta za kubo, ini nknba a nga si nakekeli na ? Ka 
sa s' azi ngani na? lokn si m gcinileyo ebnncinyaneni 
bake na ? 

His ancestral shades say, why is it that he does not care for us ? 
For what reason does he not still acknowledge us ? since we have 
taken care of him from his infancy. 

Rem. — This pronoun, with or without its prefix i (ini or ni), is some- 
times used in a similar manner with other prepositions ; thus, 

Se ni ngi biza njengoneni na, lokn ngi ti ngi ya Inngisa nje 
mina kn nina na ? 

Now, according to what {= why, or for what reason) do you call me 
to account, since I think I am right (just) in my relation to you V 

Ni ya ngi bizisa okwani na ? 

Like to what do you call on me, i. e., why do you call me to account ? 

A ngi sa hlatyelelwa njengani na ? 

I am still not slaughtered for like what, i. e., why is it that cattle are 
not still offered to me as usual ? 

§ 482. The interrogative pi and ni are fonnd in the geni- 
tive, — the former with, and the latter either with or withont, a 
prefix, — nnder the regimen of the genitive a and the preform- 
ative of the limited nonn ; thns, 

Nge ya mupi umuntu le 'ngubo naf whose blanket is this, or, this 
blanket belongs to which person? Umuti wani na ? wood of what ? or 
what kind of wood is it— what is it good for? Induku ya muni yena 
umu7itu na 9 a club of what (kind of) person (is this) ? 

Note. — For other remarks on the forms and uses of the interrogative 
pronouns, see §§ 180-183. 



CHAPTER V. 
SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 

Sect. 1. — Agreement, Combination, and Expansion. 

% 483. 1. The Zuln verb has no particular form, or inflec- 
tion, of its own, to denote number and person. As Sir John 
Stoddart says, in his Universal Grammar : — 

"The form of the verb may or may not be altered on this account. 
We may say in Latin amo, amamus, amatis, amant, or in English ' I 
love,' ' we love,' ' ye love,' ' they love ;' but it is manifest that though 



252 

in the examples cited from the latter language the form remains un- 
changed, the signification is alike varied in both languages. The differ- 
ence of person, therefore, in point of form, is merely accidental to the 
verb ; it peculiarly belongs to the pronoun, and has been sufficiently 
explained in treating of that part of speech." 

The attributing of these properties or distinctions — number 
and person — to the verb in any language, as Brande remarks, 
is " logically anomalous." 

"Most languages," as he further remarks, "fall into this error, 
which is, however, susceptible of a very easy historical solution. It 
arose, doubtless, from the original custom of annexing the pronoun to 
the termination of the verb, and continuing the use of the inflection 
after its import had been forgotten, and when the pronoun had been 
forgotten, and when the pronoun had been formed into an independent 
part of speech." 

2. The IsizLilu, however, has never fallen into "this error." 
Its pronominal subject has ever preserved a separable, distinct 
position of its own, between which and the verbal predicate — 
the essential verb — it often introduces some two or three other 
secondary or relational words ; thus, 

"Siya ni tanda," we do you love ; " ngi za ku ni tuma," I am going 
to send you; ''abantu ba ya si tanda," the people they do us love ; 
" ni za ku m tuma," ye are about to send him : " umfana u ya yi tanda 
inkosi," the boy he loves the chief ; " inkosi i ya ku m biza umfana," 
the chief will call the boy. 

3. These examples are sufficient to show that the form of the verb, 
both auxiliary, as ya, za, and principal, as tanda, tuma, biza, is one 
and the same, whatever may be the nuuiber and person of its subject. 
They are sufficient to show, also, that the particular relation, as that of 
class, number, and person, which a verb sustains to a noun, or to a per- 
son, is pointed out by the direct pronominal subject. 

4. By taking a specific form to represent the class and num- 
ber of the noun, and distinguish the person ; and by taking a 
uniform position before the verb, or at the head of the predi- 
cative combination ; and being sometimes repeated (with an 
auxiliary) in the several members of this combination ; these 
relational words, the pronouns, happily indicate every import- 
ant connection between the noun, or person speaking, and the 
predicate, without any change in the form of the verb ; — as 
shown in the above examples, and as may be seen also in every 
part of the synopsis of a verb § 309., and, indeed, throughout 
the Grammar. 

Note. — For the agreement of pronouns with the nouns which they 
represent, see §§445-449. 

§ 484. The genius of the Isizulu requires a fullness of 
expression — an expansion in the construction of compound 
predicates, and in many double propositions, beyond what is 
common in the English and some other languages. 



AGEEEMENT, COMBIKATION AND EXPANSION. 253 

I. Wlien there are two or more predicates in a proposition, 
the pronominal snbject must be nsed with each, — the auxilia- 
ries, if any, being often omitted in the second and following 
predicates, and the final vowel a^ of the princi23al vei'b, being 
changed to e in the present and future tenses ; thus, 

Endhh^ini vesikutali indhlala i ya lunguza, i dhlule, i ye 

kweyevila ; 

At the house of the diligent famine it does gaze (cast a wistful look), 
it passes on, it goes to that of the slothful. 

Si ya ku sebenza si qede ; 
We will work we finish. 

U nga hamba u finyelele emizini ya kwiti ; 
You can go j' ou arrive at the kraals of our people. 

Ngi like nga hamba nga hlangana nabantu ; 

(When) I arrived I went I met with people. 

Rem.— No use is made of the copulative na to connect predicates, as 
may be seen from the foregoing examples, and further in the following; 
thus, 

Ba ya suka ba gaule izibaya nezindhlu, ba sebenze umuzi 
wabo, ba wu qede ; 

They go to get out timber for folds and houses, they build their 
kraal, they finish it. 

Sa puma lapa, sa lala nga pesheya kwoMngeni, sa vuka 
kona, sa iika Embilo, sa hlalela abanye kona ukuba si be 
endawonye ; 

We left here, we slept beyond the Umngeni, we rose there, we ar- 
rived at the Umbilo, we waited for others there that we might be 
together. 

§ ^85. II. Several kinds of double propositions, w^hich, by 
the use of such words as o'i\ except^ as^ etc., are so compen- 
diously expressed in English as to look like one, require an 
expanded form in Isizulu. 

1. The force of or and nor requires an expanded form ; 
thus, 

Uma ku nge sizo izinkomo, uma ku nge siwo amahashi, ku 
ngabantu aba ya ku hamba ; 

The cattle, or the horses, or the people will go,— literally, if it be not 
the cattle, if it be not the horses, it is the people who will go. 

Usibekana u ya ku ni siza, uma ni nga sa sizwanga itina ; 

Usibekana or we will help you, — literally, Usibekana will help you, 
if ye were not already helped by us. 

A ngi ku tandi, futi a ngi kwesabi ; 

I neither love nor fear thee, — literally, I do not love thee, again I do 
not fear thee. 



254: AGREEMENT, COMBINATION AND EXPANSION. 

2. The force of excejyt^ and not, hut, hut not, etc., requires 
an expanded form ; tlins, 

Ngi ja zi tabata zonke izinkomo kn sale zi be mbili kodwa ; 

I take all the cattle but two, — literally, I take all the cattle, there 
remain two only. 

Si nga zikoblisa tina kodwa si nge m kohlise Utixo ; 
We may deceive ourselves but not God. 

Bonke abantii ba bnlawa, kodwa jena lo 'mfana wa sinda ; 

All the people but this boy were killed, i.e., all the people were 
killed, but this same boy escaped. 

3. The force of as, so as, just as, etc., often requires an 
expanded form ; thus, 

Inkosi )^a ba pa bona njenga lokn i pe tina ; 
The chief gave them as (he gave) us. 

Ya m nika TJfakn njenga lokn ya m nikajo Unodwengn, or 

njengokuba ja m nikayo Unodwengn ; 
He gave Faku just as he did (give) Unodwengu. 

Umnti wa wa pezn kwabo njenga lokn u we kiti ; 

The tree fell upon them as upon us, — literally, the tree fell upon 
them like as it fell to us, 

Wa ngi pata njengokuba nga pata yena ; 

He treated me as I did him. 

I^gi ya hlala njenga kuqala, ngi ya cabanga njenga kuqala, 
ngi ya ni tanda njenga loku nga be ngi ni tanda, kodwa 
kwonke loku a ku sizi nga 'Into ; abantu a ba yi ku hlala, 
ba cabange, ba tande njengami ; 

I live as I did, I think as I did, I love you as I did, but all these to no 
purpose ; the world will not live, think, nor love as I do. 

§ 486. III. The Isizulu requires the nse of the principal 
verb in many (other) instances, where the English would use 
only the auxiliary, the principal verb being understood ; thus, 

A ku ko owa ke wa ya ezulwini e nge nako ukupenduka ; 

Uyobe wa be e nge ye ; Udavida wa be e nge ye ; 

No man ever went to heaven without repentance ; Job could not 
(go) ; David could not (go). 

Uma lo 'mfana wa be e nga penduka ku lesi isono esi sodwa, 

a nga penduka kwezinye ; 
If this boy could repent of this one sin, he could (repent) of more. 

U kona owa ke wa yi bona ingelosi na ? Yebo, baningi ba 

ke ba yi bona ; (Jabehama wa yi bona, noDavida wa yi 

bona ; 

Did any body ever see an angel? Yes, a great many have (seen 
one) ; Abraham did (see one) ; and David did (see one). 



GOVEENMENT OF VERBS. . 255 

§ 487. TV. The higher, better style of Isizulu, requires the 
verb to be repeated in the reply to direct simple questions ; and 
the whole answer is generally given, mutatis mutandis, in the 
same words as the question ; thus, 

TJ bonile 7ia 9 hast thou seen? Answer, ngi bonile; I have seen. 

Hem. 1. — In loose, familiar style, a direct simple question is 
often answered by ehe, or yeho, for the affirmative ; and by ai^ 
ca, qa, or (jaho, in the negative ; and sometimes, when the 
reply is to be direct and earnest, the verb is repeated in addi- 
tion to the adverb ; thus, 

Izinkomo zifikile na ? have the cattle come? Answer, elie, zi fikile ; 
yes, they have come. 

Rem. 2. — In Isizulu a question containing a negative is often an- 
swered with direct reference to the negative ; and an admission, or an 
affirmative replj^ as expressed by ehe, or yebo, must be taken as an ad- 
mission of the negation contained in the question ; thus, 

A ha hambanga no. 9 have they not gone? Answer, ehe, yes, i.e., 
they have not gone. 

A ni bonile izinkomo zami na 9 have you not seen my cattle? ehe, 
yes, i. e., I have not seen them. 

A ka tandanga kambe ukuba omunye a vukele omunye, a m bulale 
na9 Of course he did not wish one to rise up against the other, and 
kill him ? Answer, ehe, yes, i. e., lie did not. 

Sect 2. — Goveimment of Vei'hs. 

§ 488. Transitive verbs govern the accusative case ; thus, 

Tabata izinto zokusebenza ; 
Take things for working. 

Ba hlaba inkomo ba yi dhle ; 
They slaughter an animal and eat it. 

Si ya qala uku bona ; 

We begin to see. 

Xgi ya tanda izindaba za le 'ncwadi ; 

I like the contents of this book. 

'Baba, ngi beke (bheke) ; 
Father, behold me. 

Ba si hlupa ; 
They persecute us. 

Rem.— When the action denoted by the verb affects an object directly, 
or without the aid of any intermediate word, as in the foregoing 
examples, the relation of the noun to the verb is spoken of as objective ; 
and is thus distiuguished from another kind of relation, the modal, 
where a noun or pronoun is used to explain the manner in which the 
action of the verb takes place. 

(a. The objective construction occurs, of course, only in connection 
with active transitive verbs, as above ; and since the noun is conceived 



256 . GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 

of as affected by, or suffering the action of the verb, it is sometimes 
designated the suffering object. 

(b.) Tlie modal construction occurs in connection with either transitive 
or intransitive verbs ; and, being generally used to denote some partic- 
ular circumstance, as the place, time, manner, instrument, of the verbal 
action, it has the force of an adverb ; and hence is sometimes called 
the adverbial construction. The noun's particular relation to the verb, 
in such cases, is denoted, sometiuies by an intermediate word, as a pre- 
position, wdien we generally speak of a noun as governed by a prepo- 
sition (see § 393.) : sometimes it is denoted by an inflection of the noun, 
as in the locative case (see § 401.) ; and occasionally by a combination 
of both methods — a separate word and an inflection (see g§ 402., 403.,) ; 
and, again, in some instances, there is nothing but the position of the 
noun to denote its relation to the verb (see §§ 395. , 396). 

§ 489. Many verbs in the causative, some in the relative, 
and some in the simple and other forms, take two accusatives, 
generally the one of a person, and the other of a thing ; thus, 

Wa ngi patisa izinkomo ; 

He charged me the cattle, i. e., put the cattle under my care. 

Wa ba kalela izinyembezi ; 
He wept tears for them. 

Inkosi ya si nika izinkomo ; 
The chief gave us cattle. 

Utixo izinto u zi pa izikutali ; 
God gives things to the industrious ; 

Kodwa yena o pangelayo mina abantu bami, no m bulala 
nokumbulala ; 

But whosoever robbeth me of my people, him shall ye utterly de- 
stroy. 

Rem. 1.— The suffering object is generally inactive, being that which 
suffers the action of the verb, or is affected by it ; while the personal 
object, denoting, of course, a person, may be conceived of as active, 
and as shaping its action to that of the subject. 

Rem. 2— Instead of two accusatives under the regimen of one verb, 
one of them— the personal object— is sometimes governed by a prepo- 
sition ; thus, 

Wa kuleka inkomo ku 'mlungu ; 
He asked a cow of the white man. 

Ngi ya kuleka kuwe ukuba u ngi size ; 

I beseech (of) thee to help me. 

Izinkomo eziningi wa zi nika ku 'zinceku zake zonke ; 

He gave many cattle to all his servants. 

Rem. 3. — When there are two objects of one verb, the pronoun of the 
personal object is generally found (in the simple form) before the verb ; 
thus, 

Inkosi abantu ya be i ba nikile izinkomo ; 
The chief had given the people cattle. 



GOVEKNMENT OF VERBS. 257 

IT si pe okulile ; 
Grant thou us a blessing. 

Se si ku nikile pela inkomo yetu ; 
Now then we have given thee our cow. 

(Umpande) wa m nika elake Umbulazi ; 
• He (Umpande) gave Umbulazi his (country). 

§ 490. Those verbs wliich are referred to, in the last para- 
graph, as governing two accnsatives in the active voice, are 
often accompanied by one of them — the impersonal — in the 
passive ; thus, 

Nga patiswa izinkomo ; 

I was charged the cattle, i. e., I was put in charge of the cattle. 

Leli 'lizwe ngi li nikwe ngubaba ; 
I was given this country by my father. 

Ba ti, umbila si wn nikwa ini na ? 

Tiiey said, are we given maize? — that is, have we been blessed with 
a crop of corn ? 

Rem. — Forms of expression like the above are generally considered 
anomalous in English ; and some grammarians even condemn them as 
inaccurate, calling in a preposition to aid in disposing of them. Yet 
the best of writers make use of them. But whatever may be said of 
them in English, it must be adaiitfced that they abound in the Isizulu, 
and require to be carefully studied and observed. The idiom is also 
accompanied with some peculiarities in this language ; or, perhaps it 
should be said, the idiom is better established, and more arbitrary in its 
sway, in the Zulu, than in our own tongue ; especially where the noun, 
or pronoun, denoting the person, refuses to come under the control of a 
preposition, or an equivalent inflection, and persists, as it were, in be- 
coming the subject of the verb in its passive form ; thus, 

Ilizwe lenn li busisiwe ngUtixo, owa n' enzela lezo 'zinto ; 

kodwa tina ka si nazo lezo 'zinto e n' enzelwajo zona (6>r 

e ni z' enzelwayo) ngCJtixo ; 

Your country is blessed by the Lord, who did those things for you ; 
but we have not those things which ye are done for them [i. e. , 
which are done for you) by the Lord. 

Umnzi lona nga wu misehva ngabelnngu ; 

This kraal I was set ax)art for it (was allotted it, i. e. , it was assigned 
to me) by the white xoeople. 

Abafana bami umzi lo ba wu miselwe ; 

My boys this kraal they were set apart for it, — that is, this kraal was 
assigned to my boys. 

Leyo imizi ba yi miselwa ngnyise ; 

They were allotted those kraals by their father. 

§ 491. When verbs signifying to name, to call, to choose, 
render, make or constitute, esteem or reckon, are followed by a 

17 



258 GOYEENMENT OF VERBS. 

factitive object, — an object wliicli expresses what the subject 
or a suffering' object becomes or is thought to be : — 

1. {a.) The factitive object is sometimes placed immediately 
after the suffering object, without any copula or sign of the 
relation ; thus, 

]^ga pambeka nga ti ihashi inkomo ; 
I mistook and thought the horse a cow. 

{h.) If the factitive object expresses what the subject be- 
comes, or is thought to be, as when the predicate is an intran- 
sitive or a passive verb, the factitive object sometimes follows 
the predicate without any specifying verb or particle ; thus, 

Abantu ba fa ba penduka izinyoka ; 
People die and become snakes. 

Isicoto si pendukile amanzi ; 
The hailstone has turned to water. 

2. (a.) The factitive object is often construed with loku ha 
or jiktf. ti, to be, to wit ; thus, 

Inkosi jsi bizwa uku ti Upakade ; 
The chief was called Upakade. 

Ba bizwa ngokuti abantwana ; 
They were called children. 

IT ya ku bizwa 'ku tiwa Umakobeni ; 
He shall be called Umakobeni. 

Sa fika emuzini o bizwa uku ti Isilebe ; 
We reached the kraal which is called Isikhlebe. 

Wa ketwa uku ba inkosi ; 
He was chosen (to be) king. 

Abanye ba ti, ku ya telelwa umuntu ukuba a be icwane, a 
be ishinga, a be ibuda, a be isiula; onmnye a be isitu- 
twane, omunye a be isifumbu ; 

Some say, it (poison) is poured out for a person that he may become 
crazy, or that he may become a rogue, or that he may be deranged, 
or that he may become a fool ; that one may become an epileptic, 
another a hump-back. 

W enza udaka olu t^dswa ngomlilo lu be ngamatye ; 
He made clay which is burned by fire into bricks. 

(b.) The factitive object may be found sometimes in the form 
of a iinite verb in an accessory clause ; thus, 
Wa si yaleza ukuba si hamhe, he commanded us that we should go. 

(c.) The factitive object is often expressed by a verb in the 
infinitive ; thus, 

Wa si yaleza uku hamba, he commanded us to go. 



GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 259 

{d.) The factitive object may be denoted by an adjective ; 

tlins, 

Ma u si pe amabele ukuba a he maningi, grant thou us grain that it 
may be abundant. See §g 427., Rem.; 434., 4. 

§ 492. The Isizulii abounds in the use of the passive voice, 
adopting it in many cases where the English would employ the 
active (see § 206., Rem.) ; thus, 

Ku liny wa abafazi ; 

It is dug by the women,— that is, the women do the digging, or the 
digging is done by the women. 

Kwa be ku hlaliwa ngabo ; 

It was being dwelt by them, — that is, they were dwelling. 

Wona 'enziwe yini ukuba enze njalo na ? 

By what are they made that they do so, — that is, what makes them 
do so? 

Nenkomo yokusengwa ubisi ; 

And the cow to be milked milk, — t?iat is, to give milk. 

Nezandhla uku ba izinceku zokwenza oku tandwa ngu- 

mpef umlo ; 

And hands to be servants for doing what is desired by the soul, — that 
is, what the soul desires. 

Sa f elwa nguye ; 

We were died for by him, — that is, he died for us. 

§ 493. The copulative conjunctions are not employed in the 
Isizulu to connect two or more verbal predicates ; but when 
the relation between such predicates is coordinate and intimate, 
as when there are two or more in a single proposition forming 
a kind of compound predicate, the second and following verbs 
usually omit the use of auxiliaries, and, in the present and 
future, change the final vowel a to e. (§ 484., I.) But some- 
times each predicate may be considered as forming, with its 
pronominal subject, a new, simple proposition ; in which case 
the final vowel of the succeeding verb, or verbs, is unchanged, 
though the auxiliary may be dropped. 

To illustrate each of these rules^ and exhibit also some vari- 
ations ; to illustrate them as well in the negative as in the 
affirmative ; and also to illustrate the manner in which the 
Isizulu^ in the jprogress of a sentence, passes from the affirma- 
tive to the negative, and also from the negative to the affirma- 
tive, — is the object of the following examples : — 

IS^okuba sa be si Iwa, sa bubisana iminyaka yonke ; 

On the contrary, we were fighting, (and) we killed each other every 
year. 



260 gover:n'ment of verbs. 

Si ya loba, si lobelaiia ; 

We do write, we write each other. 

Bekani nokiilima kwabo ; ba ya sebenza, ba lilabe amacati, 
ba lime iminjakana e yincozana ; ba be be se ti, insimu se 
yi gugile, be be se be yeka, se be qala omunye umsebenzi ; 

Behold ye their digging also ; they work, and cut away the trees, 
and dig a very few years ; and then they say, the garden is worn 
out, then they leave, and begin some other work. 

'Ngi sindise, u nga ngi bubisi ; 
Save thou me, and not destroy me. 

Uma aba be m landa ba be m bambile, wa be e ya kii ze a 
buye ; 

If those who followed him ( = his pursuers) had caught him, he would 
have been obliged to return. 

Sa fikake koiia kwa Tukusa ; si te si sa fika, kwa se ku iika 
izinsizwa za sEsanqwini, zi za 'ku si tabata ; se zi yake 
nati kona eiikosini ; 

So we arrived there at Tukusa ; and just as we arrived, there arrived 
the young men from Isanku, coming to take us ; so, then they go 
there with us to the king's. 

A si bekaiiga Umenzi, a si bekanga ITrasindisi, a si bekanga 
abatiinyvva, a si bekanga ku 'banye ; sa beka ezinyokeni 
kupela ; 

We did not look to the Creator, nor to the Saviour, nor to the apostles; 
nor to others ; but only to the snakes. (§§ 484-487.) 

Ma ngi tandwe, ngi nga zondwa ng' aliwe ; 

Let me be loved, and not hat^d nor rejected. 

iS^gi sindise, u nga ngi xotyi, u ngi bubise ; 

Save thou me, and not chase and kill me. 

Ma ngi sindiswe, ngi nga xotywa ngi bujiswe, ngi xotwe ngi 
bulawe, ngi nga be ngi sa bako emlilabeni ; 

Let me be saved, and not driven away nor destroyed, expelled nor 
killed, till (or so that) I shall never be here any more on the earth. 

l^gi sindise, u nga ngi bubisi, u fihle ikanda lami ; 
Save me, and not kill me, and hide my head. 

A nge ze a kala, a nge bleke, a nge dhlale ; 
He might not weep, nor laugh, nor play. 

A ngi nako ukukuluma, nokuzwa, nokucabanga ; 
I cannot speak, nor hear, nor think. 

Ma u ng' ehli, u ye emapandbleni, u shiye itunga lenkosi ; o?" 
a ku fanele u bu ng' euka, u ye emapandbleni, u sliij^e 
itunga lenkosi ; 

You must not go down (from the capital), repair to the distant coun- 
try kraals, and leave the king's milk-pail ; or it is not proper that 
you should descend, and go, etc. 



MODES AND TENSES OF VERBS. 261 

A ku fanele ukiiba vi nof elila, n ye emapandlileni ; 

It is not proper that you should descend, and go to the distant coun- 
try kraals. 

Inkomo ka inkulu, inciiiyane ; 

The cow is not large, but small. 

Ku mulile wena, ii mubi ; 
Thou art not beautiful, but ugly. 

Abantii babi, ka ba bahle ; 

The people are ugly, they are not beautiful. 

Sect. 3. — Syntax of the Modes and tenses. 

§ 494. In respect to the syntax of the modes and tenses of 
verbs, in their relation to one another, and especially in refer- 
ence to the relation of one tense to another, and that in a 
language rich above all others in material and forms for mak- 
ing the nicest of distinctions in these things, it is not easy to 
give particular rules. Nor is this necessary. Referring to the 
somewhat particular account of the use and import of each 
auxiliary, and to the extended definitions and ihustrations of 
the forms and uses of each mode and tense, as given in Ety- 
mology (§§ 207-306.) ; and also to the definitions and illustra- 
tions of the different kinds of sentences, both simple and com- 
pound, as already presented in the first chapter of Syntax 
(§§ 337-372.), — a variety of well selected examples, under 
each mode and tense, is all that can be required here, excej)t, 
perhaps, the following very general statement : — 

While the Isizidu finds no dijficidty in allowing an inter- 
change of some of its modes, particidarly the imperative, 
potential, and optative, and displays great freedom in the 
interchange of tenses, sometimes representing the past or future 
as present, and even the present and future as already past ; 
it is also ahle, and particular, to employ those modes and 
tenses which give a correct expression of the sense intended. 

Rem. — On many of these jDoints, the Zulu language bears a close an- 
alogy to the Greek. So true is this remark, that we may say, almost in 
the language of another coDcerning the Greek, that the Isizulu ' has the 
power of giving to narration a wonderful variety, life and energy, 
from the freedom with which it can employ and interchange its tenses. 
Without circumlocution, it can represent an action as continued or 
momentary ; as attempted or accomplished ; as introductory or con- 
clusive. It can at pleasure retard or quicken the progress of the narra- 
tive. It can give to it dramatic life and reality by exhibiting an action 
as doing, or epic vivacity and energy by dismissing it as done. It can 
bring a scene forward into the strong light of the present, and instantly 
send it back into the shade of the past. The variety, vivacity, and 
dramatic character of Zulu narrative can be preserved but very im- 



262 MODES AND TENSES OF VEEBS. 

perfectly in translation, from the fact that the English has, compara- 
tively, so small a variety of tenses and so little freedom in uniting the 
past and present.' 

The truth of these remarks, and of the above statement, or rule, may 
be seen in the paragraphs which are now subjoined to exemplify the 
use of the modes and tenses, and especially the manner in which these 
are combined and employed in continuous discourse. 

§ 495. I. The following examples are a specimen of the use 
of the Infinitive Mode : — 

1. As a nonn in the nominative ; thus, 
Ukweduka ukuma kwabantu ; 

To err is the character of man. 

Loku ukmigazi kwa m papisa kakiilu ; 
This uncertainty made him feel very anxious. 

2. As a noun in the accusative — 

a. The object of a verb ; thus, 

Si ya f una uku zwa inhlalo yenu ; 
We want to hear of your estate. 

b. The object of a preposition ; thus, 

W enza incwadi enhle ngokuqonda kwake ; 
He made a nice book by his right thinking. 

S' onile ku 'bazali betu ngoku nga ba laleli ; 

We have sinned against our parents by not obeying them. 

3. As qualified by an adjective ; thus, 

Kubi ukuhamba kwabo ; 
Evil is their mode of life. 

4. As entering into construction in dependence upon another 
word — 

a. Depending upon a noun ; thus, 

Inkosi i tumile isigijimi sokuza ■ ku buza ; 
The chief has sent a messenger to come to inquire. 

Zi nesineke sokuzakela izindhlu zazo ; 

They have sense to build for themselves their houses. 

Ba s' azisa indao yokubusa ; 

They make us to know the place of blessedness. 

h. DejDending upon an adjective ; thus, 

Inkabi indala uku donsa ; 
The ox is too old to draw. 

G. Depending upon another verb — 
ia.) Objectively ; thas, 
Amakolwa a qalile uku tenga izincwele ; 
The believers have begun to buy wagons. 



MODES AND TENSES OF VERBS. 263 

(h.) Modallv; thus, 

Biitani abafana, be ze 'ku lima ; 

Assemble the boys, that they may come to dig. 

(Abantu) be za 'kii iigi tabata ; 

They (the people) came to take me. 

d. Depending upon a conjunction ; thus, 

A ngi nako ukukuluma nokuzwa nokncabanga ; 
I cannot speak, nor hear, nor think. 

5. As absolute, having no dependence upon another word; 
thus, 

Ya ti impi, uku pendula kwayo, si ya ku bona ; 
The commando said, (in) replying, we will see. 

§ 496. II. Some of the forms and uses of the Indicative 
llode, as already specified § 221., are further illustrated in the 
following examples ; thus, 

Si ye zwa kaloku nje, u kona umsebenzi omukulu, o mangalis- 

ayo. Ku tiwa, pesheya izindaba zi ya hanjiswa ngonyazi ; 

We hear just now, there is a great, and wonderful work. It is said, 
beyond (the sea) news is made to travel by lightning. 

]N^ga tika kwiti lapa ku liny way o ; la dhliwa ihlobo ; kwa fika 

uku ti, inkosi i ya wela ; 

I reached home while they are digging ; the summer was spent ; then 
came word, the king is crossing over. 

§ 497. III. Some of the forms and uses of the Potential 
Mode, as already specified § 222., are further illustrated in the 
following examjDles ; thus. 

Si ya ku tokoza si nga z' amkela izincwadi zenu ; 
We shall rejoice should we receive your letters. 

Kodwa iningi labantu ku leli 'lizwe ba nge ke b' azi 'luto 

ngako ; 

But the greater part of the people in this country would know noth- 
ing about it. 

!Ngi nge be ngi sa tanda izono zami ; 

I may not be still loving my sins — or, I ought not, etc. 

(Inhliziyo) a ngi nge yi fanise na 'nto ; i ya guquka njalo ; 
i fana nesondo eli pendulwa amanzi ; lona li nge mi uma 
ku vulelwe amanzi ; 

I cannot compare it (the heart) to anything ; it is forever changing : 
it is like a wheel which is turned by water ; that cannot stand 
still if it be opened upon by the water. 

^'gi be ngi ti ku nga ba kuhle ; 
I was tliinking it would be well. 



264 MODES AND TENSES OF VERBS. 

Wa ti, uina u ja puza (ubutjwala), e sa bu bala, a nga m 
giba ebandhleni ; kodwa uma ka bu balanga, ku nge be 
necala ; ngi nge m gibe ; 

He said, if he drinks (beer), being still pledged (against) it, he would 
expel him from the church ; but if he had not signed (against) it, 
it would not be a sin ; I would not expel him. 

Wa be e nga f enyisa nkuyalwa ; 
He may have despised reproof. 

A ku fanele ukuba u nga ya emapandhleni ; 

It is not proper that you should go to the distant country villages. 

Wenzile izulu, lapo ni nga pila, na lapo ni nga so za na fa, 

uma ni lungile ; 

He has made heaven, where you may live, and never die, if you are 
good. 

Ni nge ze n' amba nokuba ku nga penduka bapi ; 

You cannot doubt who must repent. 

Umkumbu u nga se mi kuso ; 

The ship could not stand against it any longer. 

Bonke b' onile ; ngi nge ze nga tyo ukuba b' one kangapi ; 
ngi nga ze ngi linge uku bala izinwele zekanda la lo 
'mfana ; 

All have sinned ; I need not try to tell how many times ; I might as 
well try to count the hairs on that boy's head. 

Uma si za ku tata umuti, ku nga ti, uma u s' alilula, ku nga 
ze ku lilaluke omunye o veza icebo, a ti, ma si tate izin- 
tambo si wu hole ngazo, kandu ukuma si wablule (umuti) ; 

If we were going to take a log, perhaps, should it be too heavy for 
us, there might start up some one who would devise a plan, and 
say, let us take thongs and drag it with them, in order that we 
may overcome it (the log). 

§ 498. ly. Some of the forms and uses of the Oijtative 
Mood, as already specified § 223., are further illustrated in the 
following examples ; thus, 

Se nga nga ti nga be na hlala kona, ka na buya ; 
Oh that ye had stayed here, and not returned. 

Se nga nga ti nga be ni nga hlalanga ni sebenze kona, nga ti 

nge na buya ne za 'ku hlala ekaya ; 

Would that ye had not remained and worked there, but that ye had 
returned and come to reside at home. 

Nga si nga tandi Usatani, isita esi si bubisayo ; 
Let us not love Satan, the enemy who destroys us. 

Nga be ni nga m shiyanga ; nga be ni linga ukuba ni m 

hlenge ; 

You ought not to have left him ; you ought to have tried to rescue 
him— or, tried if ye might render him assistance. 



MODES AND TENSES OF VEUBS. 265 

Ba ti, Wo ! sa bala ngobiuila ; iiga ti nge si iiga bii balanga ; 

They said. Oh ! we signed foolishly ; would that we had not signed 
off from it (beer). 

Loku umfnndisi si lilezi naye endawonye, a nga be ii ya si 
tyena, iikuti, iimbila iii iiga woni, nami ngi ya ku tenga ; 

Since we are living together with the missionary, he ought to have 
told us, saying, ye must not sell the maize, for I am coming to buy 
it myself. 

'Nga be laba 'baiitwana be cabanga ngoTixo na? 

Ought not these children to think of God ? 

Ng'd be ni cabanga ngaye ; 

Ye ought to think of him. 

Kwa nga ti ngi nga tyona ; 
It seemed as if I should sink. 

NgSi kala se nga ti inliliziyo yami i nga qabuka ; 
I sobbed as if my heart would burst. 

§ 499. Y. Some of the forms and uses of the Lnjjerative 
Jfocle, as ab^eady sjDecified § 224., are further ilhistrated in the 
following examples ; thus, 

Ma ni busiswe, ni namatele njalo kuye ; 
May ye be blessed, and ever adhere to him. 

TJ ya tyo, ukuti, uma u su qedile lo 'msebenzi, u ze u hambe 
u ye lapaya, wenze okunye e ngi funa ukuba u kwenze ; 

He says that, when you have finished this work, you must come and 
go there yonder, and do whatever else I may require you to do. 

Ma ngi sindiswe, ngi nga xotywa ngi bujiswe, ngi xotywe 
ngi bulawe, n^i nga be ngi sa ba ko emhlabeni ; 

Let me be saved, and not expelled nor destroyed, driven away nor 
killed, till I shall be here no more upon the earth. 

Ma bo linga ba m hlenge ; 
Let them try and deliver him. 

Ya ti ku mina inkosikazi, a ku wehle uku ya 'ku bona un- 

yoko ; 
The queen said to me, come thou, go down to see thy mother. 

Pindelani kona ezweni lenu, ni yo kwaka kona ; 
Return ye hither again to your country, ye shall build here. 

Ya ti inkosikazi, yehlanini, ke ni ye emakaya enu ; 
The queen said, go ye down, come, go to your homes. 

§ 500. YI. Some of the forms and used of the Subjunctive 
Mode, as already specified § 225., are further illustrated in the 
following examples ; thus, 



266 MODES AND TENSES OF VERBS. 

So tiima umfana ukuba a ku tyele : 
We will send a boy that he may tell thee. 

Ngi ja bona nknba isikati sami si seduze ukuba ngi tyone 

ekufeni ; 
I see that my time is near when I must sink in death. 

A ku fanele ukuba u ye emapandlileui u shije itunga lenkosi ; 

It is not allowed that you go to the country kraals and leave the 
king's milking. 

Kona se ni kulile, ngi ya ku tanda ukuba ngi ni tele konalapa ; 

When you have grown (to be men), I shall be glad to locate you just 
here — or, glad if I may locate, etc. 

Nga be ngi nga nika kwonke e ngi nako, ukuba ngi ngene, 

ngi m tyele ukuba nga qamba amanga ; 

I would have given all that I had, if I could have gone in, and have 
told him that I had told a lie. 

Ku tiwa (inkomo) i bizwa uyise ; kanti a i bizwanga leyo 
inkomo ; ku qanjwa ngomlomo nje. Uma i be i bizwa 
oyise, ngapane e nga se sindile (yena) na ? 

It is said, it (the cow) was demanded by his (deceased) father : 
whereas that cow was not demanded ; it was just an oral device. 
If it had been required by his ancestral shades, then ought he not 
to have been already restored to health ? 

Uma ngi be ngi ku tyo loku ngi nga qali ngi ku fumane 

Encwadini ka 'Tixo, ni be ni nge kolwe ; 

Now if I had told you this without first finding it in the Book of 
God, you could not have believed me. 

Ku njalo nezilwane zesiduli ; uma incwele i nyatele indlilu 
yazo, zi ya tyetya uku yi sebenza masinyane, zi yi vimbe 
leyo 'ndao e nyatelweyo incwele ; 

So it is with the little animals of the ant-hill ; if a wagon runs over 
their house, they hasten to repair it immediately, and build up 
that place which was trodden down by the wagon. 

Uma abafundisi ba iika lapa, ba bona abantu be nga kol- 
wanga, ba be se be muka, ngapane e nge ko amakolwa ; 
ngesineke sabo a kona amakolwa ; 

When the missionaries came here, and saw the people unbelieving, 
had they gone away at once, then there must have been no be- 
lievers ; through their perseverance there are believers. 

Ngokubane nami nga be ngi ngumuntu nje ; ngi balekile 
okwabane ngi bone ukuti ngi za ku bulawa. Mina umzi 
ngi ye nga wu tata ku 'belungu ; kandu ukuma nami ngi 
be inkosi ; 

For I also was just a common man ; I fled because I saw that I was 
about to be killed. As for myself I then obtained a kraal (stand- 
ing, power, authority) from the white people ; so it was that I also 
became king. 



MODES AND TENSES OF VERBS. 267 

Wa ti, ngapane (inkomo) i ya ku buya i zale ; 
He said, she (the cow) ought to have another calf. 

Ngi ti, be ku dela inliliziyo yami, i bi cabanga ukiiba i bi 
yindhlu yesonda ; ngi ya \Tima ; kodwa i bi yindhlu yabe- 
lungii, ngi be ngi nga yi ku vuma, be ngi ya ku biza oku 
nga pambili ; 

I say, it has satisfied my heart, considering that it was a house of 
worship ; but if it had been a house for white people, I should not 
have consented, I should have asked more (for thatching it). 

ISToma u kona umsebenzi wokuzuza okukulu, uma u nga lun- 
gile, aba ka Keristu ma ba tyetye ba yeke loko ; noma 
into i si siza ngokupila, uma i nga vunyelwe, ma s' abluk- 
ane nayo ; ma si nga bi nesineke esonweni nakanye ; 

Though there be a work of great profit, if it be not right, Christians 
must be ready to give up that (profit) ; though a thing may help 
us to a living, if it be not allowed, let us separate from it ; let us 
not persist in sin at all. 

Ku njengokuba u ya tyo 'ku ti, uma u nga tyongo, u tume 
umuntu okokuti, hamba u yo ku funa into e tile ; ku tike 
labo 'bantu aba be nayo, ba ti, be se bona lo 'muntu o 
vela kuwe, ba ti, nga ku be i se kona, ukuba wa be si 
tyenile, ukuti, no londoloza leyo, nami ngi ze ngi yi 
fumane. Nawe u fika nje, nga ku be u sa yi bona i se 
kona, se ba ze ba y' ona ; 

It is as if you do thus, if you have not spoken (for a thing before- 
hand), you send a person, saying, go and seek a certain thing ; 
and so those people, who had it, say, when they see this person 
who comes from you, they say, it would have been here if he had 
told us, saying, you must preserve that, for I am coming to get it. 
And you, arriving thus, should still see it yet there, though they 
had already been and disposed of it. 

§ 501. YII. The isolated forms and uses of the several 
tenses of the verb have been already given, at some length, in 
the discussion of those topics under Etymology, §§ 231-306. 

Rem. — It is not, however, from mere isolated forms that a true and 
full idea of the tenses of the Zulu verb can be gathered. Neither can 
the nicer shades of these tenses be translated into the English lan- 
guage. After getting a clear view of the elements,— the use and 
import of the several auxiliaries, and of the leading forms, — one of the 
best exercises, for gaining a command of the language, is to study the 
verb in the various and numerous relations of its modes and tenses. 

§ 602. YIII. An illustration of some of those forms and 
uses, and of some of the ways, in which different tenses are 
connected, or in which one tense succeeds another, may be 
found not only in the foregoing paragraphs (§§ 495-500.), but 
especially in the following examples. 

Rem. — Many of the quotations contain other tenses than that which 
is named at the head of the paragraph in which the example is given ; 
and this of necessity, where the relation and succession of the tenses 



268 MODES AND TENSES OF VEKBS. 

are to be presented together with their forms and uses, as in the para- 
graphs (A — F) which follow. 

§ 503. IX. A. Some of the forms, uses, and relations of the 
Present Tense : — 

(Izhigelosi) zi ya hlala ezulwini. M ti, z' enzani kona na % 
W\ ti, zi ya vilapa na ? qa ; a zi ze zi nga vilapa 'sikati ; 

They (the angels) live in heaven. And what do you think they are 
doing there? Idle, do you think? No; they are never idle a 
moment. 

Nezintntane zi yizintwana ; noko zi ya bonisa isineke sazo ; 
li ze li tyone zi sebenza indao yazo yoknhlala. Uma u zi 
capela, a zi dhlali zona ; 

And the ants are little things ; yet they show their wisdom ; until 
the sun goes down they are busy on their place of residence. If 
you consider them, they do not play. 

Abanye abafnndisi, iloku ba fikayo, a ku ka kolwa 'muntn ; 
As to other teachers, ever since their arrival, no one yet believes. 

A ku fanele ukuba ngi nga ya emapandhleni, ngi shiya itu- 
nga lenkosi, li nga sa patwa 'muntu ; 

It is not proper for me to go to the country kraals, and leave the 
king's milkpail to be no longer cared for by any one. 

Ukukolwa ku dinga isineke, ngokuba umuntu o kolwayo u 
hamba njengomuntu e hamba endaweni e nameva ; ngo- 
kuba umuntu e hamba emeveni u ya bekisisa* a beke 
izinyao ; a ka qalazeli nje njengomuntu e hamba ebaleni ; 

Faith has need of care, for a man who believes walks like a man 
w-alking in a thorny place ; for a man walking among thorns 
looks sharp where he puts his feet ; he does not look abroad in all 
directions like a man going in a clear place. 

§ 504. X. B. Some of the forms, uses, and relations of the 
Past Tense : — 

Ukuzalwa kwami, kambe, nga zalwa Emlalazi. Kwa tike 
ngi se isikundhlwane, ng' emukake, nga ya ekaya ko- 
mame ; nga lika kona inxatyana ku liny way o, nga ze nga 
li dhla ihlobo. Kwa iika ubusika ; kwa buye kwa linywa, 
ngi sa hlezi kona ; 

As to my birth, of course, I was born on the Umlalazi. And then 
when I was still a youth, I left, and went to the home of my 
mother ; I arrived there just as they were digging a little, and 
passed the summer. Winter came ; and again they dug, I still 
remaining there. 

A ngi banga ngi sa ya kona ; 
I have never been there. 

Ba ti, kwa bonwa ukudhla ku vutiwe emhlangeni ; kwa ti 
umuntu wa ka wa dhla, we zwa kmnnandi, wa be se u ye 
jayela ; 



MODES AND TENSES OF VERBS. 269 

They say, there was seen food ready among the reeds ; it happened 
a man once ate, and found it sweet, and so became habituated. 

Wa lunywa inyoka ; 

You were bitten by a snake, — i. e., take care or you will be bitten. 

Si be si ng' azi okoina n va Ivu tanda (iimbila), si ze sa ya 
'ku tenga ngawo ; 

We did not know that you would want the maize, and therefore 
went and sold it. 

^^Tawo lona nga ze nga wona iije, ngi ti miibila u iiawo ; 
ukuba nga be ng' azi okokiiti ka nawo iimbila, nga be ngi 
nga yi ku pange ngi wone ; 

And so I went and sold tliis, thinking he has maize ; if I had known 
that he has no maize, I should not have gone at once and sold it. 

(Iliashi) li ke la baleka kambe ; 

It (the horse) ran somewhat away of course, — i. e., made a slight 
attempt to run away. (See j^ 237. , 2. , c. ) 

Nga ti ngi nga ka hlali ekaja inyanga i se 'nye, wa lika 
nmuntu o se zo kii ngi tabata ; 

And before I had been at home a single month, there came a man 
who was about to take me away at once. 

§ 505. XI. C. Some of the forms, uses, and relations of the 
Future Tense : — 

Imbala ngi ya ku twala lokn na % 
Verily shall I bear this ? 

Futi, si y' esaba ukiiba Umpande u ya ku tukutela, a nqabe 

ku tengwe ezweni lake, uma e zwa oku njalo ; 

Moreover, we are afraid that Umpande will be angry, and forbid 
trading in his country, if he hears of such things. 

Uma si kutele, a si so ze sa fa yindhlala ; 

If we are industrious, we shall never die of famine. 

ISTjalo hlabisisa pansi, u limisise, lapo amavila e sa lele ; u ya 

ku ba nokudhla kwokuba u tenge, nokwokuba u dhle ; 

So, thrust in deep, and dig hard, while sluggards are still sleeping ; 
and you shall have food, not only that you may sell, but also that 
you may eat. 

W azi ukuba ni ya ku tanda uku pila ku be ngunapakade, 
ngako wenzile izulu, lapo ni nga pila, na lapo ni nga so za 
na fa, uma ni lungile ; 

He knew that you would want to live forever, and so he has made 
heaven, where you may live, and never die, if you are good. 

Uma ni ya ku konza Utixo, a be uyihlo nesihlobo senu, ma 
ni penduke ; 

If you will serve God, so that he may be your Father and Friend, 
you must repent. 



270 MODES AND TENSES OF VERBS. 

IS'gokuba u ya labia iimpefumlo wake, a nga be e sa ba na 
'siblobo eziilwini, a nga be e sa ba na 'sililobo 'ndao ; oku- 
kiilii, uknba e nga sa yi ku ba na 'siblobo ; 

For he loses his soul, and has not a friend in heaven, nor anywhere 
else ; and, what is more, he never will have a friend. 

Kwa fika isigijimi, esi vela ku inkosi, esi zo kii biza izin- 

komo ; 

There arrived a messenger, which comes from the king, which is 
about to demand cattle. 

Nambla a si tandi ; ii nga bona, so tnma iimfana uknba a ku 
tyele, ukuba se si jfi tanda kakulu ; 

To-day we are not w^illing ; you may see, we will send a boy that he 
may tell you, when we are already quite willing. 

Ba be si tyenile, okokuti, ni nga k' oni loko ; si ya ku za si 

ku fumane ; 

They had told us, saying, you must not yet dispose of that ; we are 
coming to get it. 

§ 506. XII. D. Some of the forms, uses, and relations of 
the I^ resent Perfect Tense : — 

JS^gi balile ngaso isineke ; 

I have written about consideration. 

Bekake, nangu wumbila ; se ngi wonile ; 
See, here is the maize ; I have already sold it. 

Sa hlala ya ze ya fa inyanga ; ku te nga semva kwoba i fe 
inyanga, sa pindelake ; 

We remained until the month expired ; it came to pass after the 
month had expired, we went back again. 

Uma ku fikile ukufa, (umuntu) u ya tabata into a ye enyan- 

geni ; 

When sickness has arrived, a person takes something and goes to 
the doctor. 

Inyanga be i si ya tula, i si tabata itongwane layo, i bi si ti, 
wozani, si ye lapaya. Ni pete intoni na? Se be ti, O 
'nkos', a si pete 'luto ; si pete, — nansi intwana ; 

After a long silence, the doctor then takes his snuff-box, and says, 
come, let us go yonder. What have you brought? Then they say, 
O king, we have not brought anything ; we have brought, — here 
is a trifle. 

§ 507. XIII. E. Some of the forms, uses, and relations of 
the Past Perfect Tense : — 

Be be se be fikile na ? qa ; be be sa bekiwe ; 
Had they already arrived? No ; they were still expected. 

Kwa tiwa ekaya, izinkomo za dhliwa pesheya, okoba inkosi 
abantu ya be i ba nikile (zona) ; 



MODES AND TENSES OF VERBS. 271 

At home, it was said, the cattle were eaten beyond (the river), be- 
cause the king had given (them) to the people. 

Yena wa ti, noknba wa be botyiwe, a ka yekanga umsebenzi 

wake ; 
He indeed, even though he had been imprisoned, did not give up his 

work. 

^ga be ngi nge yi bone, iima lo 'muntu wa be e nga ngi 
kombisanga; kodwa nga yi bona ngaye yena a ngi kom- 
bisayo ; 

I should not have seen it, if that man had not directed me ; but I 
saw it by means of him who directed me. 

Uma a be si pe nkudlila, sa be si ya kii m tanda ; kodwa 'a 
si panga, a si yi kn m tandake ; si m tandelani, loku e nga 
si piyo iikudhla, nkuba si dhle pela, si jabiile, izinhliziyo 
zetn zi tokoze na ? 

If he had given us food, we should have loved him ; but he did not 
give us, and so we shall not love him ; why should we love him, 
since he does not give us food, that we may eat indeed, rejoice, 
and our hearts be glad ? 

Ba fika kusasa, ya be se i lile ; 

They arrived in the morning, after it had already died. 

Ubaba o tandekayo wa be se e file ; 
My dear father had already died. 

Nga cabanga, se nga ti ngi nga nika yonke inifuyo yelizwe, 
iikuba ngi bize kaknki nkuba a ngi zwe, ngi cele uyekelo 
Iwake ; kodwa nga be se ngi putile ; wa be se e setuneni 
iminyaka e yishumi nambili ; 

I said, I would give all the wealth of the world, if I might call so 
loud that he would hear me. that I might ask his forgiveness ; but 
I had already lost the opportunity ; he had been in the grave now^ 
twelve years. 

]^ga ku be nami ngi sa hlalele, ukuba wa be e tyilo, uknti, 
nmbila n nga woni ; 

I should have waited for (him) until now, if he had said, you must 
not dispose of the maize. 

§ 508. XIY. F. Some of the forms, uses, and relations of 
tlie Future Perfect Tense : — 

Wena naye no ba se ni gijimile ; 
You and he will have run. 

Uma a si tumanga umfana, a si yi ku ba si tandile uku 
tenga ; si nga tuma ngomsumbuluko ; kodwa uma si nga 
sa m tumanga, si ya ku be a si tandanga ; 

If we should not send a boy, we shall not have been willing to sell ; 
we may send on Monday ; but if we should still not have sent him, 
we shall have been still unwilling (to sell). 



272 IDIOMATIC VERBS, FORMS AND USES. 

Uma ngi nga buyi ngomqibelo, Dgi ya ku ba ngi tandile ukii 
hlala etekwini ; kodwa uma ngi nga tandanga, no ngi 
beka ngomqibelo ; 

If I do not return on Saturday, I shall have been willing to remain 
at the Bay ; but if I should not be willing, ye shall look for me on 
Saturday. 

(Inkosi) a i se yi ku ze ya be i sa kn nika 'Into, nawe wo ze 
n suke ku lelo inxiwa, wake kwenye indao ; ku ti uma u 
su sukile, u ya ku biza inyanga yemiti i ku hlanzise ; ku 
se i ku ze wa lu bona uto olu nikwa inkosi ; 

He (the chief) shall never more again have given thee anything, 
until thou shalt have departed from that building spot, and have 
built in another place ; and when thou hast already departed, thou 
shalt call an herb-doctor that he may cleanse thee ; then shalt 
thou have seen something given thee by the chief. 



Sect. 4. — Idiomatic Verbs, Forms, and Uses. 

% 509. There are certain idiomatic verbs (§ 216.), or certain 
idiomatic forms and uses of the verb, which claim attention. 

§ 510. The use of ^lku ti, as an auxihary, has been specified. 
(See §§ 211., 2., h.; 215.) It is used also :— 

1. As a kind of expletive in the sense of a^id, now, so it 
was, it came to pass, — to introduce a new subject, or sentence ; 
thus, 

Nga zalwa Emlalazi. Kwa tike ngi se isikundhlwane, ng' 
emukake, nga ya ekaya komame ; 

I was born at the Umlalazi. And while I was still a youth, I left, 
and went to the home of my mother. 

Kwa ti ukuba ngi wele, nga funyanisa umkwenyana wetu ; 

And when I had crossed over, I found our brother-in-law. 

2. In the sense of and, now, then, Init^ — to denote a connec- 
tion between the subseqiient and preceding proposition, and 
introduce an inference, or an explanation ; thus, 

Noma e gula, a nga su dlili ukudhla, ku ti aba hlala naye ba 
m nike ukudhla, a ku nqabeke ; ba ti, yidhlana, funa u 
nga bi namandhla ; 

Or if he is sick, and does not still eat food, then those who live with 
him give him food, which he accordingly refuses ; and they say, 
eat, lest you have no strength. 

Ku te nga semva kwoba i fe inyanga, sa pindelake. Si te si 
sa hlezi incozana, lapa inyanga yetwasayo, kwa fika ukuti, 
Isanqu si ya bizwa ; sa kupukake, sa fika enkosini. Si te 
si sa fika enkosini, kwa tiwa, ma yi butane yonke (impi) ; 
ya butanake ; 



IDIOMATIC VERBS, FORMS AND USES. 273 

And after the moon had expired, we went back. And as we were 
waitmg a little, while the moon waxed, there came to say, the 
Sanku division is summoned ; accordingly we went up, and ar- 
rived at the capital. And just as we arrived at the capital, the 
command was given, let the whole army assemble ; and it assem- 
bled accordingly. 

Wa tuina uiiwabii ku 'bantu, uku za 'kii ti, kii tiwa, ma ni 

nga ii. Kn te endhleleni iinwabu Iwa libala ; 

He sent a chameleon to men, to come to say, it is said, ye shall not 
die. But the chameleon lingered on the road. 

3. In the sense of say^ do^ make^ and, now^ tJvas^ that, — to 
introduce some subordinate word, or clause ; thus, 

A fike a m bone, ukuti ka biyi kahle ; 

He comes and sees him, that he does not make a good fence. 

Nami nge zwa ukuti a se ng' ahlule (amanzi) ; 

I also felt that it (the water) had already overcome me. 

Ya funa, oku nga ti i nga si hlanganisa pakati ; 

It (the army) sought, as it were, to enclose us within (its wings). 

Uma a si na 'kwazi, ma si yeke, si tule, si ti, du ! 
If we are ignorant, let us stop, be silent, and say — nothing. 

IS'aye o nga vuki kusasa, u ya ku ti, nqunqu ! a nga wu 

funianisi umsebenzi wake kusihlwa ; 

He that does not rise early, shall say, heigh-ho ! and not overtake 
his work at night. 

Ba buka, ba ti, kexe ! 

They looked, and said, wonderful ! 

4. In the sense of to wit, namely, for instance, some, certain, 
particular, — in order to designate or specify some person, 
place, or thing ; thus, 

A ti, ukufa ku sendaweni e tile ; 

He says, the disease is in a certain place. , 

Uma i ti, a no m funelani umuti o tile, ba m funela wona ; 
If he says, you must get him a certain medicine, they get it for him. 

§ 611. This verb, or verbal noun, uhit ti, used in one or 
another of the senses already specified, (as also uhu ha,) is 
often found in a state of regimen, and sometimes in the loca- 
tive case. 

1. In a state of regimen ; thus, 

Ku te nga semva kwoba i fe inyanga ; 

After the month had ended,— literally, it said in the event of that 
the moon died, 

Kwa ku tyo yona inkosi okokuti, ka si dhle (izinkomo) ; 

The king himself had said that we might eat (the cattle). 

18 



274 IDIOMATIC VEEBS, FORMS AND USES. 

2. In the locative case ; thus, 

Ba ti, yeti, 'mngani, wena wa sekutini ; 

They say, hail, friend, thou of a certain (place, office, or character, 
i. e. , thou shade of our ancestors). 

U kona yena o ba qedayo abantii ba sekutini ; 
There is one who destroys the people of said (kraal). 

§ 512. The infinitive i^Jcu ha, to be, is nsed, sometimes in its 
simple form, either full or contracted, and sometimes in regi- 
men, to signif}'', that, so that, since, if, for, hecaicse ; thus, 

Wa ti, ai, a zi se ko, ngokuba sa dhla, ukuba kwa ku tyo 

yona inkosi okokuti, ka si dhle ; 

He said, no, there are no longer any, for we ate (them), since the 
king himself had said that we might eat (them). 

Ukuba amanzi a ye se kona nga pambili amaningi, nga ngi 

nga se yi kn wela, ngokuba nga se ng' ahlulekile ; 

If the water had gone still on there further in abundance, I could 
never have crossed, for I was already exhausted. 

§ 513. Tlie infinitive uhu ma, to stand, is used sometimes in 
full, sometimes contracted, and sometimes in regimen, to sig- 
nify^, when, lohether, that, for, hecaitse (§ 212., Rem. 2.) ; thus, 

Kwa ti ukuma ng' ahluleke, a tanda amanzi uku ngi yisa 

pansi ; 

And when I was exhausted, the water wished to take me to the 
bottom. 

Ka s' azi kodwa iikuma wa ke wa hlangana ini naye na ; 
We do not know whether he ever met with him. 

Ka ku lungile okwomane si hlale endawonye sonke nezin- 

gane zetu ; 
It is not good that we should all remain together with our children. 

g 514. The form iikiize, from uTtw za, to come, is used to 
signify until, that, so that, in order that (§ 210., 4.) ; thus, 

Inyama ba yi ngenisa endhlwini, ba yi valele kona, be ti, ma 
ku dhle oyise, ukuze ba bone ukuba be ku hlatyelwe bona, 
ba si pe imfuyo eningi, ukuze ku sinde izingane zetu na ti ; 

They put the meat in a house, and shut it up there, saying, let the 
fathers eat, that they may see that it was slaughtered for them, 
and grant us much wealth, so that we and our children may 
escape. 

§ 515. The verbs huya, return, and pinda, repeat, are often 
used in the sense of again, and, also : — 
1. Buya ; thus, 
Nga fika kona inxatyana ku linywayo, nga ze nga li dhla 

ililobo ; kwa fika ubusika ; kwa buye kwa linywa, ngi sa 

hlezi kona ; 



FOKMS AND USES. 275 

I arrived there just as they were beginning to dig, and there I passed 
the summer ; winter came ; and again they dug, I still remaining 
there. 

Ngsi buya nga piiidela kona pansi ; 

Again I returned there to the bottom (of the river). 

Nga buy a nga xuxiima, nga banga pezulii ; 

Again I sprung up, and made for the surface (of the water). 

2. Pinda / thns, 

Sa lika kwela kwa Hlangezwa, sa lima; futi sa pinda sa 
lima ; sa pinda sa lima ; 

We arrived at the district of Hlangezwa, and planted ; also again 
we planted ; and again we planted. 

Sa lilalake kii leyo indao, sa lima ; sa pinda futi sa lima ; 

And so we remained in that place, and planted ; also again we 
planted. 

§ 516. The Yootf^ma, want, to be destitue of, is nsed-in the 
sense of lest, that not, for fear that ; thus, 

Ba ti, yidhlana, funa u nga bi namandhla ; 
They say, eat, lest you have no strength. 

Linda izinkomo, funa zi ngene ensimini ; 
Watch the cattle, that they may not enter the garden. 

Ba ti, woza lapa, zi yeke izinkomo, zi za ku zingenela (esi- 

bayeni) ; a tike yena, funa zi nga ngeni ; 

They say, come here, let the cattle alone, they are about to enter 
(the fold) of themselves ; but he says, (not so,) lest they should not 
enter. 

Ngi biyela okoba funa zi fohle ; 

I am building up the fence, lest they should break through. 

Ngi basa ukubane funa ngi nga bi namakaza ; 
I kindle a fire in order that I may not be cold. 

Ku sibekele kakulu, funa ku ze ku ti ku bonwe ngabantu ; 
Cover it up well, lest it come to pass that it be seen by the people. 

U papile kakulu, ukuba funa umtwana a nga bi namandhla 

okubona ; 
She was very anxious, lest the child should not be able to see. 

]^g' esaba, nga ti funa izinkabi zi hambe z' apule imiti ; 
I was afraid, lest the oxen might go and break the trees. 

§ 517. The verb qala, begin, is often used in the sense of 
the adverb first ; thus, 

Wa qala wa ya nga kona ; 
He first went there. 



276 IDIOMATIC VERBS, FORMS AND USES. 

§ 518. The verb jpela^ cease, terminate, come to an end, — is 
used in the sense of the adverbs then^ therefore^ of course^ con- 
seq^iently ; thus, 

Hamba pel a ; Ma si tenge pela ; 

Go then. Then let us trade. 

§ 519. The form qede^ and sometimes qedmia, from qeda, 
finish, end, — is used in the sense of the adverbs as soon as, 
when, then, after ; thus, 

Wenze uku kanya kn kanye ezibukweni, namehlo okubona 
qede ku ngene ; 

He made the light to shine in at the windows, and eyes to see it after 
it has entered. 

Uknba ni ku kulume emakaya qede ni goduke ; 
That you may talk it over at home when ye return thither. 

U se fike qede ka ba sa knhimi ngaye ; 

As soon as he arrived they stopped talking about him. 

Izinja zi ya m bona qede zi konkote ; 
As soon as the dogs see him they bark. 

U kona ini yena o za 'ku shumayela ku 'mantombazana, o 
nga posa itye qede a nga be e sa ngena na ? 

Would any one come to talk with the girls, and throw a stone, and 
not come in? 

§ 620. The forms jyonsa {posa), jponse, ]jonsu, from ponsa 
(or poso}), throw at; and city a,, citye, city it, from city a, 
sharpen, bring to a point,— are used, generally with the infini- 
tive, in the sense of almost, luell nigh, especially when the idea 
of danger is involved : — 

1. Ponsa ; thus, 

Ngi ponse uku wa ; 
I nearly fell. 

(Inkabi) i ya ku pose i fe nga semva kwami ; 
The ox will nearly die after me,— le., the danger is, the ox will 
have died since I left home. 

2. City a ; thus, 

M citye nku fa ; JS'gi citye nga fa ; 

Ye are in danger of perishing. I nearly died. 

§ 521. An idea of necessity, or obligation, is often denoted, 
in the one case negatively by ni%isa, and in the other affirma- 
tively by ngapana. 

1. The form ninsa (probably the causative of mitka, go 
away,) is used, with the infinitive expressed or understood, to 
signify must not ; thus. 



IDIOMATIC VERBS, FORMS AND USES. 277 

Musa iikii libala; 
You must not delay. 

Miisani iiku tyo loko ; 
Ye must not say that. 

Miisa iikii ngi biiza; 
You must not question me. 

2. The form ngapana^ or ngajmne, (^^<7<^^ i^Liay, must, and 
pana, reciprocal form of pa^ grant,) is used in the sense of 
should^ must^ must he^ it is proper^ 7iecessary, probahle^ of 
course, then ; thus, 

Uma i be i biz we oyise, ngapane e nga se sindile ; 

If it bad been required by his paternal shades, then he ought to have 
recovered. 

Wa cabanga, wa ti, ngapane i ya ku buy a i zale ; 

He thought, and said, probably it will have another calf — or, it 
ought to have another calf. 

§ 522. The forms sandu and 'k.andu are used idiomatically : — 

1. Sandu {sa-andida^ § 216.) is used with the infinitive to 
^ioYxiij just noio, recently ; thus, 

Zi sandn kii iika ; ^ga sandu ku yi tenga ; 

They have just arrived. I have lately bought it. 

2. Kandu (Jca-andtda^ § 216.), follow^ed generally by rikmna^ 
is used to signify tJien^ that, so that, in order that ; thus, 

A ti, kandu kuma ku qine, u nga biya ngamahlalila alukuni ; 

He says, in order that it may be firm, you must build with stiff 
branches. 

A iike a m bone, ukuti ka biyi kahle, a tike, biya ngama- 
ndhla, kandu kuma u z' ahlule ; 

He comes and sees that he is not making a good fence, and accord- 
ingly says, make it strong, in order that you may stop them (the 
cattle). 

Kwo ze ku dhlule leli 'sonda kandu kuma si hambe ; 
When this week shall have passed then we must go. 

N^awe u nga ya uku yi tenga, kand' u be nayo ; 

You also may go and buy it, and then you will have it— or, you 
must go to buy it, in order that you may have it. 

Ka i so ze ya be inkosi i sa ku nika 'luto, noma i ku bona ; i 
si ya ku pa abanye ku be kupela. Kandu ukuma i buye 
i ku pe, u ya ku suka ku leh 'lizwe, u yo kwaka kwenye 
indao ; 

The king will never more again give you anything, even if he sees 
you ; he will continue to make presents to others only. In order 
that he may show you favor again, you must leave this neighbor- 
hood, and build in another place. 



278 SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLE. 

CHAPTER VI. 
SYNTAX OF THE PARTICLE. 

§ 523. GrENEEAL Remarks. — The adverb, preposition, con- 
junction, and interjection, are often grouped, as here, and put 
under the general head of jparticles. In the signification and 
use of this class of words, the interjection excepted, are in- 
volved some of the nicest shades of meaning, and most 
important turns of thought. 

In addition to what has been said of their nature and form, under 
the head of Etymology, an indirect, though comparatively full illustra- 
tion of their use has been given in connection with other parts of Syn- 
tax, especially in the discussion of propositions and sentences (§§ 335- 
373.) : in remarks upon the use of the accusative after prepositions 
(§§393-400.); also upon the manner of denoting degrees (§§417-426.); 
and upon the idiomatic use of verbs (§§ 509-522). After making a few 
observations upon some of their more important peculiarities, in fur- 
ther development of their use and construction, and also of the manner 
in which their use is often dispensed with in the Isizulu, a series of 
examples will be given, arranged in groups according to the several 
kinds of propositions and sentences, and according to the discussion 
already given in the first chapter of Syntax. 

§ 524. In the Isizulu, as in other languages, the different 
classes of particles often blend with each other in their use. 
Hence — 

1. Adverbs sometimes take a case, as prepositions. Of this 
class are hatyana, hude, kanye. (See § 329.) 

2. Prepositions are sometimes used without a case, as 
adverbs. Of tliis class 2iYQ pansi^ ])cikati^ and some others. 

3. The same particle is sometimes used as an adverb, and 
sometimes as a conjunction, — or as a connective, and as a non- 
connective, such as hodwa^ ickuba, ukimia. 

% 525. Both adverbs, and prepositions with their cases, are 
often used substantively ; also, an adverb and a preposition 
governing it are sometimes written together as a compound 
word : — 

1. Adverbs used as a noun ; thus, 

Umhlanga wa kona u fana nezinti zesiswebu, a wu fani 
now^a lapa ; 

The reed of there {i.e., of that country) resembles whip-sticks, it 
does not resemble that of here (t. e., of this place). 

2. A preposition and its case may be used sometimes as a 
noun ; thus, itsithu Iwa namhla, this day, i. e., the day of to- 
day ; utnsebemi wa ngoinso^ the work of to-morrow ; abaniu 
ha hwa Zulu., the people of Zululand. 



ADVEKB AND PREPOSITION. 279 

3. An adverb and a preposition may be written together as 
a compound word ; tlms, nakanye^ at once, never ; napalcade, 
for ever. 

A.— THE ADVERB. 

§ 526. Adverbs modify sentences, phrases, and w^ords, par- 
ticularly verhs, adjectives, and other adverbs ; thus, 

Ba kala kakulu, they complain greatly ; a ka na ^sineke nakanye, he 
has no care at all ; iva fiina abantu, nembala wa ha tola, he sought peo- 
ple, and verily he found them ; dbelungii ha nezibindi ezikulu kakulu, 
white people have very great courage ; wa hiiya ica ya emva kakulu, 
he turned and went far back. 

13._THE PREPOSITION. 

§ 527. Prepositions are followed by nouns in the oblique 
cases, chiefly by the accusative, but sometimes by the genitive 
or the locatis^e. 

1. The genitive is governed by the preposition Jca ; or by 
tlie genitive particle «, united with the preformative of the 
governing noun ; and occasionally by some other preposition. 
(See §§382-391.)^ 

2. The accusative is governed by prepositions of various 
kinds. (See §§393-4:00.) 

3. The locative is sometimes found in regimen with a prepo- 
sition. (See §§ 402., 403.) 

§ 528. A few of the prepositions, as ku, Ica, kwa, na^ and 
nga, may be used each alone, i. e., singly ; thus, 

Kuye, to him : naye, with him ; ka mina, of me. But in respect to 
others, for the most part, each preposition requires a complement ; 
thus, pduze nabo. near to them ; emva kwabo, in rear of them ; malun- 
gana nabo, opposite to them ; pezu kwabo, above them. 

Rem. — (a.) Doubtless those prepositions which require a complement 
were first used as nouns ;— some in the locative case, as, eduze, emva, 
or emveni, etc.; and some in the accusative, and govejrned by other 
prepositions, as, nganeno {nga and neno), pakati {pa and kati, umkati), 
pezulu {pa and izulu). 

(b.) But those nouns, in passing from notional to relational words, 
still retain the use of the preposition (as na, ku, wa, etc.,) which was 
first used to show the relation of one noun to another ; thus, eduze 
nentaba, in contiguity with a mountain, i. e., near a mountain ; emva 
kwomuti, or emveni womiiti, in the rear of a tree, i. e., behind a tree. 
And these substantival prepositions, or prepositional substantives, are 
not only followed by a complemental preposition, but also often pre- 
ceded or governed by a preposition ; tlius, nga seduze nentaba, nga 
semva kwomuti. 

{c.) The use of ngenxa {nga and inxa), as itself a preposi- 
tion, together with the complement nga before a noun in the 
locative, or the genitive particle a with the preformative y of 
inxa {{-a = ya), — is a good illustration of the transitional pro- 



280 CONJUNCTION AND INTERJECTION. 

cess above stated. The noun inxa^ in ngenxa, is sometimes 
used as an abridged form of the plural izinxa • thus, we may 
have ngenxco yonke = on every side ; or ngenxa zonke = on all 
sides. And this word may be used either with the locative, 
taking nga as a complement ; thus, ngenxa nga semutini^ 
round about the tree ; or with the genitive, taking its prefor- 
mative y or 3 with a {— ya or za) as a complement; thus, 
ngenxa yanii, on my account ; figenxa yezono, on account of sin. 

C— THE CONJUNCTION. 

§ 529. Conjunctions are used to connect propositions and 
sentences ; thus, 

Futi, si y' esaba ukuba Umpande u ya ku tukutela ; 
Again, we are afraid that Umpande will be angry. 

U bulula abantu nemizi yabo ; 

It destroys people and their towns. 

Rem. — The conjunction na often has the appearance of connecting 
single words ; but a careful analysis will show that in such cases we 
must either regard the construction as elliptical, or consider na as a 
preposition = with ; thus, kwa Jika indoda nomfana, there came a man 
and a boy, — that is, there came a man, and there came a boy ; or there 
came a man with a boy ; sa beka nga pamhili na nga semva, we looked 
before and behind, — that is, we looked before, and we looked behind. 
(See §493.) 

D.— THE INTERJECTION. 

§ 530. 1. Some of the interjections are usually addressed to 
a jDcrson, or a thing, and followed by the noun in the vocative 
form ; thus, 

Yeti. 'mnga.ni! hail, friend! bayeti, 'nkosi! hail, king! E'haba! O 
father ! halala, 'bantu ! welcome, people ! 

2. Some of the interjections are generally construed with 
uhic ti ', thus, 

Ba buka, ba ti, kexe ! . 

They looked, and said, wonderful ! 

Ku te lu sa tyo njalo, Iwa mbetyezwa intulo, uku ti, iya ! 

And as he was thus speaking, he received a slap in the face from the 
lizard, saying, get thee gone ! 

3. Interjections are sometimes used independent of gram- 
matical construction ; thus, 

Zi kohlisa 'bani? E! u buza mina'^ Nga sa buza isigidi, 
ku leso, 'mpakati, ha-ha, ku leso ; 

Whom do they deceive ? oh ! do you ask me ? Ask the song, that 
one, comrades, oh yes, that. 



SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 281 

CHAPTER VII. 
SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 

§ 531. The following examples are given, not only in fur- 
ther illustration of the use of conjunctions, and of the manner 
in which their use is often dispensed with, in Isizulu ; but also 
in further illustration of the different kinds of sentences, and 
of the remarks concerning them, as already given in tlie first 
chapter of Syntax. 

§ 532. I. Co-ordinate Copulative Sentences — 

Izwe labo lihle, li nemiti ; 

Their country is beautiful, and wooded. 

Sa fika, sa lilala kwa za kwa linj^wa futi, sa ze sa wa dhla 

lawa 'mabele ; 

We arrived, and dwelt until they dug again, and then we ate that 
grain. 

§ 533. II. Co-ordinate Adversative Sentences — 

Ba fika lapa abafundisi; ba hlala ba hlala iminyaka, ka nga 
kolwa abantu ; noko a ba tyetyanga uku mka ; 

Missionaries arrived here ; they remained many years, bat nobody 
believed ; yet they did not hasten to depart. 

Inkosi ya ti, ni ya ku ze ni yo ku ba tabata, se be kulile ; be 
nqabake, ba ti, ai, 'nkosi, na ti si ya ku zikulisela ; 

The king said, ye shall go and bring theai, when they are grown ; 
but they declined, saying, not so, O king, but we will grow them 
for ourselves. 

Ku tiwa, (inkomo) i bizwa uyise, kanti a i bizwanga ; 

It is said, the cow was demanded by his paternal shade, whereas it 
was not demanded. 

Ukuma wa be ngi tyenile, nga ku be ku se kona; se nga ze 
nga kwona ; 

If he had told me, it would have been here ; but I have been and 
disposed of it. 

Abantu ba bopa umzimba wodwa ; inhliziyo a ba yi bopanga ; 
Men bound the body only ; the heart they did not bind. 

A ni zanga ni ba bone ; kanti ni y' azi ukuba ba be kona, 

ngokuba ni ya bona aba kwenzileyo ; 

You never saw them ; and yet you kjiow they were here, because 
you see what they have done. 

Noko zincane, kodwa zi nesineke ; 
Though they are small, yet have they wisdom. 

§ 534. III. Co-ordinate Disjunctive Sentences — 



282 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 

Utixo u ya si yaleza uknba si lalele abazali betu, si kiilume 

iqiniso ; lo 'mtwana a ku ko a kwenzayo ; 

God commands us to obey our parents, and speak the truth ; but 
this child did neither. * 

Inkumbulo ya zizela kona na ? qa ; ku njenga loku le 'ndlilu 
i nga zizelanga ; 

Did the mind come here by chance (literally, of, or for itself) ? No ; 
no more than this house came here by chance. 

l^gi ya qinisa, a ngi kwambi, njenga loku ngi ng' ambi 

ukuba lo 'mfana u namehlo amabili ; 

I am sure I can no more doubt it than I can doubt this boy to have 
two eyes. 

U mi kubi ku nokuba a lahle ingalo neso ; yebo, u mi kubi 
ku nokuba a lahle ukwazi, a fakwe emlilweni ; 

He is worse off than if he were to lose an arm or an eye ; yes, worse 
off than if he were to lose his reason, or be put into the fire. 

A nga be e sa ba na 'sihlobo ezulwini, a nga be e sa ba na 

'sihlobo 'ndao ; okukulu ukuba e nga sa yi ku ba na 

'sihlobo ; 

He has not a friend in heaven, nor any where else ; and, what is 
more, he never will have a friend. 

§ 635. ly. Co-ordinate Causal Sentences — 

Inkosi ya ti. Wo ! umuzi u ku fanele nje na ? ukuba u sale, 

u tate abantu be ze kuwe, ba be ngabako na? loka 'zin- 

komo ka zi se ko na ? 

The king said, indeed ! would (not) a kraal just suit you? so that 
you could remain, and receive people, who should come to you, 
and be yours? since there are no longer any cattle? 

Loku ni ya bona nje ba se 'zingane, ni ya ku ze ni yo ku ba 
tabata, se be kulile ; 

Since you just see they are yet children, you will go and bring 
them, when they are grown. 

Wa ti, ai, inkomo ka i nako ukutengeka kahle, ngokuba 

abantu se be tyaya umbila ; 

He said, no, a cow does not pay well, because the people now set a 
higher value on maize. 

§ 536. y. Subordinate Substantive Sentences — 

Kwa ti nga semva kwelinye ihlobo, kwa fika uku ti, inkosi i 

ya wela ; 

It came to pass after another summer, there came word that the 
chief is crossing the river. 

Kwa ti nga semva, kwa hlaluka uku ti, Unongalaza u bu- 

lewe ; 

It came to pass afterwards, that news came, saying, Nongalaza has 
been killed. 



SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 283 

]^i ya bona iikiiba ba se 'zingane ; 
You see that they are still children, 
Ka s' azi ukuma u ya kii zuza na ? 
We do not know whether you will succeed. 

Loko kn ya si bonisa isineke, nknba si y' ahlula izinto zonke ; 
That shows us thought, how it excels all things. 

A kwaziwa iima i ya ku pila noma i ya kii fa ; 
It is not certain whether it will live or die. 

Umfana ii ya cela kn 'yise nknba a m kwelise ehasbini ; 
The boy asks his father to put him on the horse. 

§ 537. YI. Snbordinate Adjecxive Sentences — 
Kn te, se kn za kn linywa oknnye, kwa hlalnkake isipihlika 
e si citeke ngaso ; 

It came to pass, just as they were about to plant again, then there 
broke out the war by which we were wasted. 

S' onile na sovalweni Iwetn olu mi ednze, In londa, In yala 
lapa s' onayo ; na kn yena Utixo, o 'zimemezelo zake si z' 
apnla ; 

We have sinned, both against our conscience which stands by, 
watches, and reproves when we sin ; and against God himself, 
whose commandments we break. 

Sa fika sa kn dlila lokn 'kndhla e sa kn sliiyayo kn linyiwe ; 
We arrived and ate that food which we left planted. 

Si qinisile nknba zi kona izinto ezweni e si nga zanga si zi 

bone na ? , 

Are we sure that there are things in the world which we have never 
seen? 

§ 538. YII. Snbordinate Adverbial Sentences : — 

1. Of place — 

Ba zihambisa lapa be tanda kona ; 

They betake themselves there where they please. 

2. Of time— 

Nga fika kwiti lapa kn liny wayo ; 
I reached home while they were planting. 

Kwa ti nga semva inxatyana kn linywayo, ya fikake inkosi 
ya bnza ezincek \vini ; 

It came to pass just after they began to dig, the king came and in- 
quired of the servants. 

3. Of manner — 

Kn kona amasonjwana amaningana, so nga ti a kwenzi- 

wanga ngesandhla somnntn ; 

There are very small wheels, so little as scarcely to be made by the 
hand of man. 



284 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 

Umiintu o kolwayo u liamba njengomuntn e hamba enda- 
weni e naraeva ; ngokuba nmuntii e hamba emeveni ii ya 
bekisisa a beke izinyao ; a ka qalazeli nje njengomuntu e 
hamba ebaleni ; 

A person who believes walks like a man walking in a thorny place ; 
for a man walking among thorns looks carefully where he puts 
his feet ; he does not look abroad everywhere like one who walks 
in a clear place. 

Kwa nga ti ngi biiyela emva esikatini sokiibuba kwake ; 
It was as if I had gone back to the time of his death. 

4. Of causality ; — {a.) Conditional — 

Uma ku nga bonanga ku bonwa umuntu le 'mizi, ni be ni 
ng' azi ukuba i kona imizi njalo na ? 

Now suppose those kraals had never been seen by anybody, could 
you know there were such kraals ? 

(b.) Concessive — 

ISToma li hamba lodwa li haqiwe izita ; 
Although he goes alone he is surrounded by foes. 

INTokuba be hlekisa ku yena, a ku ngenanga loko enhliziy- 

weni yake ; 
Although they laughed at him, yet that did not enter into his heart. 

(6'.) Telic— 

Impela le indhlu a yenzelwanga ukuba i lalwe ; 

Of course this house was not made for a bed-room, — literally, that it 
be slept in. 

Tandazani ukuba a ni linde ekwoneni ; 
Pray that he may keep you from sinning. 

§ 539. YIII. Incidental Sentences — 

Sa suswa lapo, se si quty wa ngemikonto, ku tiwa sonke si za 
ku landela Umawa; sa ye s' aka kwela kwa Hlangezwa; 

We were removed from thence, being driven with spears, it being 
said we were all going to follow Mawa ; and we built in the dis- 
trict of Hlangezwa. 

Kwa ti ngemva, inkosi ya ti, abantu bami, kwa be ku 
hlaliwa ngabo, ku tiwa ba za ku muka noMawa, pindelani 
kona ezweni lenu, ni yo kwaka kona ; 

And afterwards the king said, my people,— they remained behind, it 
being said they were about to depart with Mawa, — return ye to 
your own country, and build there. 

Sa lilala kwa za kwa linywa futi, sa ze sa wa dhla lawa 'ma- 
bele, si sa hlezi kona emakaya ; 

We remained till they dug again, and then we ate that grain, we 
still remaining; there at home. 



COLLOCATION OF WORD?. 285 

(Impi) ya biitanake, ya puma, i ya kwa Sikwata ; 

It (the army) accordingly assembled, and went out, going to Si- 
kwata. 

Si te si sa lilezi incozana, lapa invaiiga jetwasayo, kwa fika 
uku ti, Isanqu si ya bizwa ; 

And while we were waiting a little, until the moon waxed, there 
came word that the Sanku regiment is called. 

Loku si ya fika, si yela Emdbloti, si sa lima iiililabakanye ; 

Since our arrival— we come from the Umhloti — we have as yet 
planted only one season. 

ISTgi kala nga tyetya nga siika kiiye, kwa nga ti ngi uga fa ; 
Sobbing, I rushed from him, and thought I wished to die. 

Kumi kanjani nkiiba ngi lilabe inkomo yami, kii tiwa i 

bizwe ngobaba, ngi nga ze nga sincla na ? 

With me how is it that I offer my cow,— it is said it is required by 
my paternal shade,— and yet I never recover. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
COLLOCATION OF WORDS. 

§ 540. In respect to the arrangement of words, we know of 
no language which allows of greater freedom than the Isizulu. 
The wonderfully Reflective character of the language provides 
for the greatest, and most varied inversion. But after the 
numerous direct, and incidental remarks, which have been 
made upon the subject, in various parts of the Grammar, it 
will not be necessary to repeat, or add much in this place. A 
few general rules, however, together with examples in illustra- 
tion, may be of service, 

§ 541. 1. The noun-subject may either precede or follow the 
verb, though more frequently the former ; thus, 

Abantu ba kala, the people complain ; kwa fika umuntu, there came 
a person. 

2. The verb and its pronominal subject often occujjy the 
first place ; and when the notional verb is required in a subse- 
quent part of the sentence, an affirmation is often made at the 
beginning, by the use of uk^i ti ; thus, 

Ba fika lapa abafundisi ; 

They came here teachers, — that is, teachers came here. 

Kwa ti kwenye indao ya f unyana abanye ; 
It did at another place it found others. 

Wa ti izinceku zenkosi zi ka 'Dingane e be zi zisile, za ti se 
zi mukile, wa ceba icebo ; 



286 COLLOCATION OF WOKDS. 

He did— when the servants of Dingane, which brought them, when 
they had departed, he planned a plan. 

3. The object generally follows, but sometimes precedes the 
verb ; thus, 

Abantu ba bopa umzimba wodwa; inhlizijo a ba yi bo- 

panga ; 
The people bound the body only ; the heart they did not bind. 

§ 542. Sometimes both nomis, subject and object, stand 
together before the verb, and sometimes together after the 
verb, the subject preceding the object ; thus, 

Usutu abantu lu ba qedile ; 

The Sutu regiment has made an end of the people. 

Induna umkumbu ya wu sondeza osebeni ; 
The captain brought the ship to land. 

Inkosi abantu ya be i ba nikile izinkomo ; 

The king the people had given cattle, —that is, the king had given 
cattle to the people. 

U gwazwa njalo Utyaka Udingane ; 
Thus was Chaka killed by Dingane. 

Sa ti si buyela kwa Soshengane wa se e m bulele Udingane 

Utyaka; 

On our return from Soshengane (we found that) Dingane had already 
killed Chaka. 

§ 543. 1. Modifiers usually follow the noun or verb which 
they modify ; thus, 

Umfana wami, my boy ; umuzi wahantu, village of the people ; 
umuntii o lungileyo, a person who is good ; iva kala kakulu, he cried 
hard ; ha fika lapa, they arrived here. 

2. But when prominence is to be given to the modifier of a 
noun, the modifier is sometimes put before the noun ; thus, 

Owami umfana ; 
My own boy. (§ 454.) 

Wo ! lukulu utando lu ka 'Tixo, olu pezu kwetu ; 
Oh, how great is the love of God, which is over us ! 



APPENDIX. 



APPEISTDIX. 

Sect. I. 
1. On the ''Incipient,'" ''Preforniative,'" or ''Prefix:' 

As that part of the Zuhi noun which, in this work, is called 
the "incipient element," " pref ormative," or "prefix," serves as a 
key to the whole grammatical arch of the Isiziilu, and constitutes 
the most peculiar characteristic of the great Bantu family of lan- 
guages, it may help the student to a fuller understanding of it to 
give the substance of what some of the best African linguists, 
who have made it a study, have thought and said about it. In 
the " Introduction " to his very full and elaborate " Zulu-Kafir 
Dictionary," Rev. J. L. Dohne gives to these elements the names 
of " primitives," " primitive nouns," " initials," " substitutes ;" 
the first and second name having reference, as he claimed, to 
their origin ; the third, to position in the noun ; and the last, 
" substitutes," to their use or office, " because they represent the 
subjective noun in every part of speech, and, referring to them 
respectively, they may stand in the nominative or in the ob- 
jective case. The natural consequence of this is a grammatical 
concord.'''' He also speaks of these elements as "nominal forms," 
and "personal pronouns," and thinks them obviously derived 
from " primitive nouns," " originally independent words," still re- 
taining their meaning, though they have lost their independence 
as separate words ; being now used as nominal forms to add a 
nominal idea to any root or stem ; in other words, to form nouns 
from abstract notions by the addition of their form and meaning 
to any root or steni before which they are placed, and thus mod- 
ify or classify the abstract word according to the purpose or the 
condition for which it is required. He claims that the first mem- 
ber, initial vowel, of the incipient element has the force of an 
indefinite article, and objects to calling these elements "prefixes," 
for the two-fold reason that this term overlooks their true nature 
as nominal forms, and excludes the idea of finding an article in 
their initial vowel. In other words, to call this set of forms, 
which constitutes the peculiar characteristic of the Zulu-Kafir, 
" prefixes " or " euphonic concords," as former writers have done, 
" does not give their proper signification, because it only ex- 
presses one side of these forms, viz., as regards their use, and 
their true nature remains unexplained. Properly speaking, they 
are primitive words, pronouns, in the present state of the lan- 
guage, used as nominal forms, compounded with other words." 

In his valuable work, "A Comparative Grammar of the South 
African Languages," which was ]3ublished five years later than 
Dohne's dictionary, in referring to the elements which we have 
19 



290 APPENDIX. 

called '' nominal incipients," or " preformatives," Dr. Bleek, fol- 
lowing Dohne's theory, also speaks of them as consisting of two 
parts, the first of which, the initial vowel, he regards as an arti- 
cle, and the rest, the other two letters, or sometimes only one, as 
m or n^ constitute what he calls a " derivative prefix," claiming, 
however, that the initial vowel, as %t in um^ a in aha^ i in ^7^, was 
originally "a pronoun that was, in the first instance, identical 
with the derivative prefix, which it precedes." And yet, he 
admits that this initial vowel, " ancient article," can hardly be 
said to have the force of an article at the present time, being em- 
ployed rather as a matter of inherited habit than "any intention 
of thereby defining the noun." He holds that the essential part 
of what we have called the "incipient element or preformative," 
the " prefix," as some call it, the " derivative prefix," as he calls 
it, was originally a noun compounded with that which now car- 
ries the prefix, and to which it gave a particular import or value; 
somewhat as, in English, the sufiix er in lover, hood in manhood^ 
dom in kingdom, Shi}) in friendship, stood, originally, for nouns 
now obsolete. Thus, mii, ha, si, lu, etc, the essential parts of 
the so-called prefixes, umu, aha. Hi, idti, etc., stand, as he claims, 
for nouns which were originally compounded with the Zulu root 
word, as the root ntu in the present itmuntu, or the root kati in 
the present isikati, though they have now lost their original 
form and independent value as separate words, and at present 
serve only as a representative or pronominal fragment, to modify 
the original value and form of the radical element, ntu, kati, etc. ; 
also to determine its class and its relation to other words. Thus, 
from the root ntu we now have several different words, with 
different shades of meaning, according to the prefix ; as umuntu, 
person ; abantu, persons ; isintu, mankind ; ubuntxi, human 
nature ; uluntu, human species, or human race. 

These views, or such as these, concerning the origin and pri- 
mary use of the initial element or " prefix " of the Bantu noun 
have been taken over and entertained by some others, as by 
Hetherwick, in his " Handbook of the Yao Language," where he 
holds that " there is no doubt that these concord-characteristics 
are themselves the remains of obsolete primitive nouns. Accord- 
ing to Dr. Bleek, there are eighteen of them to be found through- 
out the Bantu family. Fifteen of these occur in Yao [counting 
the plurals as separate classes]. They are evidently of great an- 
tiquity, and form the foundation on which the structure of the 
language has been built up. At one time these characteristics 
may have had a definite meaning, whereby the various root-ideas 
of the language were classified. At present, however, no such 
definite meaning can be attached to the syllables separately. . . . 
Starting from this conception of the original meaning of these 
prefixes, it is easy to see how the constant recurrence of the sig- 
nificant syllable gives definiteness and preciseness to the meaning 
of the sentence. This, and not a mere desire for alliteration, 
seems to have been the origin of the system of concordant speech." 



APPENDIX. 291 

Hetherwick's so-called " characteristics," which answer substan- 
tially to what most other Bantu grammarians generall}^ call pro- 
nouns, differ more from the initial element or prefixes in the Yao 
than the corresponding parts do in the Zulu and its cognates. 
Thus, in the Yao, where the prefix of the first class is m, mn,, mio, 
the characteristic or pronoun is ju ; while in Zulu the corres- 
ponding prefix being tmi, or umu, gives the characteristic or pro- 
noun n, 771, or mil. For the plural of this first class, the Yao 
changes m, mil or rrno to ^va, a, or acha (atya,) or achi (atyi) ; 
as, mundu, person, wandu, persons, and has loa for the charac- 
teristic ; while the Zulu changes uni to aha, and has ba, aba, or 
laba for the so-called characteristic. 

Torrend, in his Xosa-Kafir Grammar, spoke of these incipient 
elements as " characteristic prefixes," or simply '' characteristics ;" 
but in his later work, "A Comparative Grammar," etc., he thinks 
the term " classifying element," or " classifier," as proposed by 
Kolbe, "ought to be preferred." 

Colenso calls it " inflex," because the modifications of the noun 
for number and case are made by changes in it ; just as they are 
in Latin and Greek by means of terminal particles or inflexes set 
after the root. Indeed, in many ways the use of the prefix in the 
Zulu and other Bantu languages, corresponds to the use of the 
suflSx in the Latin and some other languages. The concord or 
agreement between the noun and its adjective is denoted by ap- 
plying the prefix of the noun to the adjective by which the noun 
is qualified, just as the concord in Latin is indicated by the suf- 
fix ; thus, porta bona, good gate; porta mea, my gate; ilia 
porta, that gate ; portw bona?, good gates. This system of agree- 
ments, as found in the Bantu languages, has been called by some 
the " alliterative concord." 

By reckoning the plurals of the singular classes as so many 
new or distinct classes, in most instances. Dr. Bleek makes the 
whole number of classes, in the Zulu, to be thirteen. Most of the 
Zulu incipients, for substance, and in a more or less modified 
form, are found in its cognates ; while a few of its cognates 
have, respectively^ one or two not found in the Zulu ; so that the 
whole number of incipients or prefixes, in the entire Bantu fam- 
ily, according to Dr. Bleek's method of reckoning, is eighteen, in 
which the Otjdherero is richest, having examples of all. Fur- 
thermore, according to his reasoning, when the prefixes, as such, 
first came into being by ceasing to be used as independent words, 
they were probably far more numerous than we now find them in 
those Bantu languages which have as yet come under our obser- 
vation. Indeed, entire classes of nouns may have become extinct 
as classes, as he supposes, either by the nouns belonging to them 
becoming obsolete, or by an amalgamation of them with other 
classes through the assimilating of the prefixes with those of 
other classes ; all which indicates the direction in which the 
progress of the language tends, and foreshadows the ultimate 
embodiment and union of all in one. 



292 APPENDIX. 



2. On the Article. 



Dr. Bleek, as we have seen, thinks the initial vowel of the pre- 
fix was at first, or previous to the dispersion of the South African 
Bantu languages, a pronoun and identical with the prefix which 
it precedes, and used with the force of an article, though, at the 
present time it can hardly be said to have that power. " Its em- 
ployment appears mainly to depend upon usage, and scarcely 
upon any intention of thereby defining the noun." 

Torrend, in his Xosa-Kafir Grammar, following Bleek, makes 
two articles, one simple or vowel, as the initial vowel u in icm- 
fana, and the consonantal, as ni, the other part of the prefix in 
uinfana. And so, in his " Comparative Grammar," he says : " In 
Kafir, the article, both definite and indefinite, is %i, ^, or a, ac- 
cording as the classifier following it, expressed or understood, 
somehow or other contains u, i, or a." 

But, for myself, I could never find any article, or any place or 
use for one, either in the Zulu or any of its cognates. In his 
"Elementary Grammar of the Zulu-Kafir Language," Bishop 
Colenso says : " There is no article in the Zulu." So say most 
others. No mention is made of any by Steere in the Swahili, and 
Dr. Krapf says there is none there. Hetherwick makes no men- 
tion of any in the Yao. In a very able " Grammatical ISTote on 
the Gwamba Language," the Swiss missionary, Berthoud, ex- 
presses " regret that he cannot endorse Dr. Bleek's opinion," that 
the initial vowel of the Bantu prefix had once ' the force of an 
article ;' and, referring to Bleek's giving absolutely " no proof " 
that it could ever have been used as such, he adds : " In fact the 
Bantu languages have no article, and their peculiar genius admits 
of none. Often and often have I examined this subject, and I 
cannot conceive where room could be found to introduce a word 
which should be called an ' article,' whether definite or indef- 
inite." In these views I can but regard Berthoud as in the right. 



Sect. II. 

/Sam2jles of leading traits of some of the Bantu Languages for 
comparative ijurposes. 

1. The Setyuana. 

Setyuana nouns are divided into the same number of eight 
classes as the Zulu, being composed, as in Zulu, of two parts, the 
variable prefix and the radical ; though the forms of the words 
in Setyuana are generally somewhat contracted and less primi- 
tive than in the Zulu. The initial vowel of the Setyuana prefix, 
as in some of its cognates, has disappeared entirely. We find no 
clicks in this language, though many of its sounds are harsh, and 
its pronunciation is greatly lacking in that melody which charac- 
terizes the Zulu. In grammatical construction, as in Zulu, har- 
mony and clearness are among its chief qualities. The Setyuana 
is divided into two parts, the eastern and the western, the Sesutu 
being taken as the best representative of the former, and the 
Sethlapi of the latter. 

Personal nouns in mo, mu, or m, change this into ba or ho to 
form the plural ; as in Sesutu, motu, person, batu, persons ; Seth- 
lapi, mothii, bathu. Impersonal nouns in mo or mu change this 
into me ; as motse, village, pi. metse. Nouns in le change this 
into ma ; as, Sesutu, leyoe, stone, pi. mayoe ; Sethlapi, leintyue, 
stone, pi. maye. Nouns in se change this into li / as, in Sesutu, 
sefuba, chest, pi. lifiiba ; Sethlapi, sehuba, pi. lihuba. Nouns in 
n or m change this into Un, Urn, or ma ; as, in Sesutu, mptya, 
dog, pi. limptya y Sethlapi, ntya, pi. lintya. Nouns in lo change 
this into II, lin, Urn, or ma; as, in Serolong, lonao, foot, pi. 
linao ; Sethlapi, loleme, tongue, pi. maleme. Nouns in bo and 
go, like nouns in icbu and uku of the seventh and eighth classes 
in Zulu, make no distinction in respect to number ; as, boyaloa, 
beer ; go rata, to love. 

The genitive in Setyuana is expressed, as in Zulu, by the geni- 
tive particle a preceded by the preformative element of the first 
or limited noun ; as, lofafa loa ntye, the feather of an ostrich ; 
sebete sa khomo, liver of an ox. The Setyuana, having but few 
adjectives, makes much use of nouns to supply their place ; as, 
motu oa miisa, man of mercy ; that is, merciful man. The ad- 
jective takes the prefix of the substantive to which it belongs, 
and, as in other Bantu languages, is placed after the noun ; as, 
selomo se segolu, the porcupine which is great, that is, a great 
porcupine. The first five numerals in Serolong are noe, peli, tJiaro, 
nne, thlano. Ten is represented by shome. The numeral adjec- 
tive takes the prefix of the noun with which it agrees ; as, matlo 
mathlano, the houses are five. The pronoun takes form from the 



294 APPENDIX. 

prefix of the noun to which it refers ; thus, the prefix se gives 
sona, or, before the verb, sea; le gives lona, or lea; bo gives 
bona or boa. The verb, with few exceptions, ends in a, and like 
that of the Zulu, is rich in modes and tenses. The passive voice is 
formed by inserting o (to) before the final vowel of the verb in its 
active form; as, kea rata^ I love; hea ratoa, I am loved; ke ratile, 
I have loved ; ke ratiloe, I have been loved. Several derivative 
species are formed from the simple. Changing final a into ela gives 
the idea of /or, to, about, against; as, bala, count ; balela, count 
for ; batla, seek, batlela, seek for, or in behalf of another ; leofa, 
sin ; leofela, sin against. Changing final a into isa gives the 
causative form ; as, loma, bite ; lomisa, cause to bite. Chang- 
ing final a into a7ia gives a reciprocal form, as, ratana, love one 
another. Prefixing i to the simple form gives the reflective ; as, 
irata, love self. Intransitive verbs become transitive by chang- 
ing the simple to the causative form ; as, lajoa, be weary, lapisa, 
make weary. Active verbs become intransitive by changing final 
a into ega ; as, thuba, smash ; thubega, become smashed. By 
changing final a into olola the contrary to the primary meaning 
is obtained ; as, tlotla, honor, tlotlolola, dishonor ; bofa, bind, bo- 
f olola, unbind. Changing a into isa sometimes gives intensity 
to the meaning ; 2.^, feta, ^^^^, fetisa, ov fetisisa, surpass. 

2. The Sigioamba 

Is spoken by the Magwamba, who have been known, heretofore, 
under various other names, being sometimes, improperly, called 
Amatonga, or Batoka ; sometimes Bahlengwe ; and sometimes 
Makwapa, a corruption of Magwamba. They occupy the Inham- 
bane country, or from Zululand to the Sofala, and inland some 
300 miles from the coast. The Gwamba nouns are divided into 
eight classes. The prefix of the first is mo ; as, monhu, person, 
pi. ba7ihu. The second class has the singular in mo, plural, me ; 
as, 7noya, wind, nieya, winds ; the third in bo and ma ; as, bo- 
thamo, seat ; inatliamo, seats ; the fourth in ri and ma ; as, 
ribala, desert, plural, mabala ; the fifth in Hand ti ; as, ritiho, 
finger, pi. tintiho ; the sixth, si or tsi in both numbers ; as, si- 
faniso, image or images. The seventh, having no prefix in the 
singular, makes the plural in ti ; as, mango, accident, pi. timaiigo. 
The eighth class, consisting of verbal nouns in the infinitive, uses 
the sign of the infinitive as a prefix, and makes no distinction as 
to number ; as^ kosaba, to buy, buying, a purchase. The geni- 
tive is formed, as in Zulu, by means of the genitive particle a 
and a fragmentary pronoun taken from the prefix of the limited 
noun ; as, sifaniso sa monJiii, image of a person. The adjective 
also, as in Zulu, takes a prefix corresponding to the prefix of the 
noun it describes ; as, bajiliu labakulii, aged persons. The nu- 
merals are, radically, nwe, one ; beri, two ; raru, three ; mune, 
four ; nhlami, five ; nhlanu na nwe, five and one, that is, six, etc. 
These, like other adjectives, take the prefix of the nouns to which 



APPENDIX 295 

they belong ; as, masiku mcn'ciru, three days ; hanliu hanhlanu, 
five persons, banhu hanhlana na omce, five and one persons, i. e., 
six persons. 

In the following conjugation of the verb in the present indica- 
tive, we have a specimen of the pronominal subjects ; ndi laba, I 
seek ; u laha, thou seekest ; o laba, he, or she, etc., seeks ; he 
laba, we seek ; me laba, ye seek ; bet laba, they seek. In the 
third person the pronominal subject takes form according to the 
prefix of the noun for which it stands ; thus, (ribala, desert,) ri 
laba, it seeks ; (mabala, deserts,) a laba, they seek ; {sifaniso, 
image,) si laba, it seeks ; {tintiho, fingers,) ti laba, they seek. 
Gwamba verbs abound in conjugations, corresponding, in a 
measure, to the Hebrew, which are made by internal changes in 
the stem or primary form ; as, saba, buy, sabisa, cause to buy ; 
sabela, buy for ; sabeta, buy often ; sabana, buy one another ; 
sabeka, be purchasable. Two or more of the conjugations may 
be combined in one ; as, sabisela, sablsana, sabiselana. 

3. The Yao Language. 

Another large, important, representative member of the Bantu 
family is the Yao language, which is spoken in a widely extended 
region on the east and south of Lake Nyasa. The Wayao tribe 
has heretofore been called by a variety of names ; as, Wahiau by 
Dr. Krapf ; or Waio, Ajawa, Adsawa, or Mujao, by others. 
But the best modern usage has fixed upon Yao as the proper ex- 
pression of the root ; the prefix Wa being the sign of personality 
in the plural, while " Chiyao " (Tshiyao, or Tyiyao,) represents 
the language, and Kuyao or Kwiyao the country, according to 
the usage of those who speak that language. The Yao people 
are given to agricultural pursuits, though their methods are rude ; 
nor have they any fixture of abode. Their territory has long 
been a hunting ground for the slave trader and many of their 
people have served as porters in the caravans that go from the 
coast inland to the lake regions of the continent, and in this way 
have come to be associated more or less with the Arab and Swa- 
hili, from whom a few additions have been made to their lan- 
guage. They are also fond of travel, by which the four or five 
different branches of their tribe have been brought into much 
contact with each other. Their language is classed with the Swa- 
hili group, with which it is regarded as more nearly akin than 
Tvith the Zambezi-Nyasa. 

The Yao language abounds in euphonic changes. No harsh 
combinations of consonants are allowed, the one or the other 
being so modified when two of the incompatible are brought to- 
gether, that the enunciation may be made easy as possible. This 
language exceeds its cognates in the great variety of its terminal 
modifications. The Yao, like other Bantu languages, is exceed- 
ingly vivid in its descriptive powers. " The speaker seems to 
look upon every scene or incident as present to the eye, and every 



296 APPENDIX. 

successive detail is depicted as if it were passing in a show before 
him." The accent of a word usually falls on the penultimate 
syllable ; and here, too, as in other Bantu languages, all syllables 
end in a vowel. 

The grammatical structure of the Yao language is based upon 
that principle of concord which prevails in all the Bantu group, 
dividing all nouns into a certain number of classes according to 
their initial syllables, and requiring every word in a sentence 
which agrees with a noun to take this initial syllable or some 
modification of it, as a " preformative," " characteristic or signifi- 
cant syllable," an " alliterative syllable." Yao nouns are divided 
into eight classes, and each class has alike its own prefix and its 
own corresponding characteristic, which answers to both the 
personal pronoun and the fragmentary or preformative pronoun 

Characteristic. 
Sing. PL 



of the Zulu ; thus, 

Prefix, 

A 




Singular, 

1 mu, m, mw 

2 m, mu, mw 

3 n, ny 

4 chi (tshi) 

5 li 

6 lu 

7 ka 

8 ku, mu, mwa 


Plural. 

wa, a, atsha 

mi 

n, ny 

i, ya 

ma 

n, ny 

tu 

no i^lural 



ju 


wa 


u 


ji 


ji 


SI 


tshi 


i 


li 


ga 


lu 


si 


ka 


tu 


ku, mu 


, pa 



To the first, as in Zulu, belong especially personal nouns ; the 
second class corresponds to the 6th in Zulu ; the third, in part, 
to the 3d in Zulu ; the fourth to the fourth ; the fifth to the 2d ; 
the sixth to the 5th, and in part, to the lib. ; and the eighth to 
the 8th. 

As an example of the foregoing, we have miuidu, person, pi. 
wandfi ; mtela, tree, pi. mitela ; nyirmha^ house, the same in the 
plural; tshilindo (ti/ilindo), watch-house, pi. ilindo ; lisimba, 
lion, pi, onasiriiba y' liq^eta^ basket, pi. rnheta ; luao, a net, pi. 
nyao ; kajela, a little hoe, ^\. tujela ; ku-utoa, to die, death, no 
plural. 

The genitive or possessive relation is expressed, as in Zulu, by 
the genitive particle a preceded hj the preformative pronoun or 
class characteristic of the word limited or possessed ; as, rahapolo 
jua ')ntshiniioene, the slave of the chief ; Ikoago lya (li-a) juani- 
kongune, the axe of the woman. The Yao adjective is made to 
agree with the noun by prefixing the noun's characteristic and 
the preposition (genitive particle,) a, to the stem of the adjective 
which, as in Zulu, always follows the noun; e.g., the noun, 
nihoiie, goodness, being used as an adjective, is made to agree 
with mundii, person, of the first class, thus : mundu ju-a mbone 
(juambofie), a good man ; ts/iindic tshambone, a good thing. 
The first half dozen numerals are radically, mo, will, tatu, mtshe- 
tshe, msanu, rasanu na mo. Likumi signifies ten ; likumi na 



APPENDIX. 297 

msanu, fifteen. The first three numbers are infiected and take 
the class characteristic or prefix ; thus, tnundu jimio, one person ; 
wcmclu loawili, two persons ; nyumha sitatit, three houses. 

The Yao verb always ends in a, and takes hu as sign of the 
infinitive ; as, tmca, bind ; ku tawa, to bind. The imperative 
plural, takes the suflix ni, tawcmi, bind ye. The passive voice, 
which is not much used, is formed by changing final a into vm or 
ilioa ; as, kainiUa, seize; kamulwa, be seized; tawci^ bind; ta- 
•wilwa, be bound. The simple present of the indicative mode is 
formed by prefixing the pronominal subject to the infinitive ; as, 
oigu tawa (n-ku-taioa) , I bind ; ii ku tcnoa, thou bmdest ; a ku 
taica, he binds ; tu kit taioa, we bind ; on ku taioa [mu ku taioa,) 
ye bind ; wa, etc., kii taica, they bind. The pronominal subject 
of the third person consists of the characteristic of the class to 
whiT^h the noun belongs ; as, (icandif, people,) wa ku taioa, they 
bind ; (lislmba, lion,) li ku taica, it binds ; {indu, things,) i ku 
taica, they bind. 

The root form of the verb may be modified in many ways, so 
as to give other forms Avith modified meanings of the root idea. 
Changing final a to isya or esya, gives a causative idea ; as, ka- 
tnida, seize, kanndisya, cause to seize ; changing final a into ila 
or ela, gives a relative or " applied " idea ; as, tola, bring, tolela, 
bring for. By prefixing li to the stem we get a reflexive mean- 
ing ; as, gaioa, wound, ligaioa, wound self. B}^ changing final a 
into ana we get a reciprocal idea ; as, nonyela, love, nonyelana, 
love one another. Some verbs have their action reversed by 
changing final a into ukida or ikula ; as, luntha, join ; lumhu- 
kula, disjoin. In Yao, also, as Hetherwick says, what has been 
called a stative or neuter meaning with a passive idea involved, 
is derived by changing final a into ika or eka ; as, tama, sit, ta- 
mika, be set down ; or hj changing ida into uka ; as, papida, 
tear, papuka, be torn, or tearable ; or by changing sya into sika 
or seka ; as, tyosya, remove, tyoaeka, be removed, or removable. 
Yao verbs form the perfect tense by changing the final a of the 
present into He. In this language, as in the Zulu, the verb is 
very rich in modes and tenses. The use of ku ti, to say, and ku 
ha, to be, is very common. Here, too, as in Zulu, the adjective 
follows the word it qualifies. Its prepositions and conjunctions 
are few. 

J/.. The JSFyaniwezi Language 

Is spoken at Unyanyembe, south of Victoria Nyanza and east 
of Tanganyika. This language divides nouns into ten classes. 
The first class, or those which denote animate beings, forms the 
plural by changing the prefix mu to loa ; as, munhu, person, pi. 
wanhu. The second class, inanimate, changes mii to oni ; as, mti 
(muti) tree, pi. oniti. Another class beginning with n makes no 
change in forming the plural ; as, numba, house, or houses. 
Some nouns begin with ki and form the plural by changing this to 
fi ; as, ki?ihu, thing, -pi. Jinhu. Some change i or li of the singu- 



298 APPENDIX. 

lar to ma for the plural ; as, igi, egg ; magi, eggs. Some begin 
with III and change this to n; as, lushu, knife, 7ishu, knives. 
Nouns in ka change this to tu ; as, Jcasaka, comb ; tusaJca, 
combs. Nouns in lou make the plural by prefixing ma ; as, icu- 
icanga, medicine ; maiouioanga, medicines. The verb in the 
infinitive, having the prefix hu, may be used as a noun and make 
another class, having no plural ; as, kudeJca, to cook, cooking. 

Adjectives adopt initial letters corresponding to the initials of 
the nouns with which they agree ; as, munhu msoga umo, one 
fine person ; icanhu loaaoga, wingi, many fine persons ; kinhu ki- 
soga kimo, one fine thing ; finhii ftsoga fingi, many fine things. 
The radical forms of the first five numerals, are : mo, loili, clatu, 
nne, tanu. Ikumi stands for ten. 

The full forms of the personal pronouns, first and second j)er- 
sons, are, singular, nene, I ; icene, thou ; plural, isioe, we ; imice, 
you. The simple forms of the personal pronouns, used as either 
direct subject or object of the verb, are, first person, singular, n 
or 7xdi ; plural, tu y second person singular, u or ku ; plural, mii^' 
third person singular, a, gu, i, ki, li, Iv, ka, u ; plural, wa, i, zi, 
fi, ga, tu ; both singular and plural, ka and ku ; thus, ndi tula, I 
strike ; i^vmnhu, people,) loa tula, they strike ; {l.iso, eye,) litida, 
it strikes. 

The imperative is formed by suffixing ga in the singular, and 
gi or ge in the plural ; as, tulaga, strike thou ; tidage, strike ye. 
The passive is formed by inserting w before the final vowel ; as, 
tidioa, be struck ; ndi tulwa, I am struck. The Nyamwezi 
abounds in derivative forms of verbs ; thus, tala, strike, tulela, 
strike for ; tulana, strike one another ; zima, go out, zimya, put 
out ; 7na7iila, be accustomed, maniza, make accustomed. Chang- 
ing final a into ula reverses the meaning ; as, loisa, hide, wisulay 
find ; joa, give ; pida, receive, get. 

5. The Kisicahili. 

The Swahili language constitutes the Lingua Franca of all east- 
ern Africa, and is spoken by about half a million people. Its 
name is not derived from any particular tribe, but from " Sahel," 
the Arabic for coast, which makes it to signify the language of 
the people who inhabit the coast regions, though it is spoken also 
on the islands Patta, Mombasa, and others, from the equator 
southward to Mozaml3ique, and constitutes the language of com- 
merce among tribes far inland, at Ujiji, Uganda, and in places 
well nigh across the continent, though its real home is said to be 
on the islands of Patta, Lamu, and in the country opposite. The 
points of resemblance between the Kiswahili and its neighbor 
cognates, the Kikamba, Kinika, Kipokomo and others, are many 
and close. The nouns, as in the Bantu languages, are divided 
into separate classes. Every noun belongs to some particular 
class, which imposes its own initial form upon all related or de- 
pendent parts of speech, as the adjective, numerals, pronouns and 



APPENDIX. 299 

"verbs. The entire work of declension and much of conjugation 
is carried on by prefixes and changes in the initial letters of 
words, in accordance with fixed grammatical rules. Even nouns 
which have lost their prefix, or retain it in only one number, either 
the singular or the plural, shoAv by their dependencies what their 
original prefix must have been and to what class they still belong. 

Kiswahili nouns are divided into eight classes, some of which 
are fully prefixed, some in part only, and others not at all. Per- 
sonal nouns in mu or ni form the plural by changing this into lo 
or ^oa y as mtu, person, plural watu. Impersonal nouns in tnu or 
tn change this to mi for the plural ; as, mti, tree, plural 7niti. 
Some nouns have no prefix, being the same in both numbers ; as 
numha, house, or houses. Some nouns having no prefix in the 
singular prefix ma in the plural ; as, ')ieno, word, plural inaneno. 
Nouns having ki or ds/i {tch) in the singular make the plural in 
vi ; as, kitu, thing; vitu, things; dshauda, finger; plural, vi- 
anda. The Kiswahili, like the Zulu, has nothing corresponding 
to the article, is rich in verbs, but poor in adjectives, adverbs, 
prepositions and conjunctions. Adjectives agree with their 
nouns by adopting the same prefix ; as, mtii onrefa, tall person, 
watu warefu, tall persons ; m.iti inirefu, tall trees ; kisu kirefic, 
long knife ; mtu mivema, a good person ; watu loema wabili, two 
good persons ; niumha zawatu loangi, the houses of many peo- 
ple. The first five numerals are radically, moji, pili, tatu, ^nne, 
tano. Kumi signifies ten. The full forms of some of the per- 
sonal pronouns are : m.hni, I ; loewe, thou ; yeye, he, etc. ; sisi or 
swistvi, we ; nhiyi or nymyi you ; luao, etc., they. Regular 
SAvahili verbs always end in a ; as, ku penda, to love. The sim- 
plest form of the verb is used for the imperative ; as, penda, love 
thou. The second person plural has the sufiix^^/ us, pendant^ 
love ye. In the following we have the present indicative : 

(mimi) na penda, I love ; 

{loewe) wa penda, thou lovest ; 

{yeye) a, tea, or ya, etc., penda, he, etc., loves. 

[suiswi) tua {twa) penda, we love ; 

{nuinui) mua (mioa) pejida, ye love ; 

[wao, etc.), wa, ya, za, etc., penda, they love. 
The infinitive takes the sign ku ; the passive is formed by insert- 
ing o (w) before the final vowel ; as, na pendwa, I am loved. 

Manj^ of the Swahili verbs, like verbs in its cognates, take a 
variety of forms or conjugations to denote various modifications 
of the meaning of the simple or radical form ; thus, from penda, 
love, comes pendea, love for ; pendeza, cause to love ; pendeka, 
be loveable ; pendana, love one another ; jipenda, love self. 

6. The Otyiherero or Damara Language. 

This language, which is spoken by the Ovaherero or cattle 
Damara, on the south-west coast, or in the latitude of about 20° 
south, differs but little from the Sindonga, which is spoken by 



300 APPENDIX. 

their neighbors, the Ovambo, on the north, or between Damara- 
land and the river Kunene ; and these, together with the Nano of 
Bengaela, Bailundu and Bihe, belong to what Bleek calls the 
south-western or Bunda genus. Dr. Bleek reckons the Otyihe- 
rero as richer in classes of nouns than any other of the Bantu 
family as yet known. Of these classes he makes twelve; or 
rather, by counting each of the half dozen different kinds of plu- 
ral as a separate class, as he always does, he makes eighteen 
classes. The prefix of the first or personal class is om or omu in 
the singular and ov or ova in the plural; as, omundu, person, 
ovandu, persons. Impersonal nouns in o'mu make orai in the 
plural; as, omuti, tree, omiti, trees. For another class of nouns, 
whose 23refix seems to have been, originally, ori or eri, as now in 
the Angola and Kongo, we have, for the present, simply e for the 
singular, with 07na or ome for the plural; as, eyunc, heaven, oma- 
yuru, heavens. Nouns in oty or otyi (ots/i or otshi) make the 
plural in ovi; as, otyina, thing, ovina, things. ISTouns in 07i or 
07n make the plural in othon (ozon) or otJiom (ozom)-, as, ombiia, 
dog, othotnbva, dogs. Nouns in oru make the plural in otu, or 
else like nouns in on or 077i/ as oriirota, dream, oturota, dreams. 
Nouns in oka make the plural in oit; as, okati, stick, outi, sticks. 
Nouns in ou or oku make the plural, like nouns in e, in oma or 
ome; as, outuku, night, omatuku, nights. Local nouns, or nouns 
in opo, oko, omo, have no plural; as, opona^ j)lace; okona, a dis- 
tant place; omona, j)lace where one is. 

7. The Tlmhundii of Bihe and Bailundu 

Differs somewhat from the Umbundu (Mbundu or Kimbundu) of 
Angola. Most of the prefixes of the nouns begin with o. The 
first, a personal class, changes oirm or u singular, to oma, a or 
va to form the plural; as, om?mt^, person, omayiu, persons; idume, 
man, alume^ men. Impersonal nouns in oniii or u form the plu- 
ral in om^, ovi, or i; as, omuti, squash, omiti, squashes; iiti, tree, 
ovitiy trees. Nouns in e or i make the plural in ova or a; as, 
ekapa, potato, akapa, potatoes; isu, eye, ovasu, eyes. Nouns in 
otshi make the plural in ovi; as, otshipa, skin, ovipa, skins. 
Nouns in o{n) make the plural in olo{n)\ as, ongomhe, ox, olon- 
gomhe, oxen. Nouns in olu make the plural in olo{n)\ as, olum- 
hala, band, olomhala, bands. Nouns in oka are diminutive and 
form the plural in otu; as, okandimba, small hare, otundimba, 
small hares. Nouns in ow have no plural or make it in ova; as, 
ovKinga, grass. Nouns 'u\ oku either have no plural or form it in 
ova; as, okiioko, arm, ovoko (ova-oko,) arms. To this class be- 
long infinitives. Attributive nouns, limiting nouns in the geni- 
tive, have the genitive a with the prefix of the limited noun set 
before it, though the o is generally elided before the o of the lim- 
iting noun; as, ongombe yosoma [ga-oso77ia), ox of the king. 
The adjective takes the pronominal prefix of the noun with which 
it agrees. The pronominal prefix is generally found by dropping 



APPENDIX. 301 

the o from the preformative of the class to which the noun be- 
longs. The numerals from one to five are: most, vali, tatu, 
kicana, tanu. 

The verb takes oku as sign of the infinitive; as, olai feta, to 
pay. The modes and tenses of Umbundu verbs are few and sim- 
ple, the former numbering only three, and the latter only four. 
The present indicative of the first three persons are: singular, 
ndifeta, I pay, of eta, thou payest, o, li, i, lu, etc., feta, he, etc., 
pays; plural, tu feta, we pay, '}ni feta, you pay, va, a, vi, etc., 
feta, they pay. The imperative plural changes final a to i; as, 
feta, pay thou; feti, pay ye. 

The IJmbundu verb abounds in derived forms; as, mo7ia, see, 
monisa, cause to see; raonela {ila, ula) see for, look for; limona, 
see self or each otho"; 'monamona, see habitually; moniioa, be 
seen. Adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions are few in this 
language. 

8. The Kimhundxi, or Mhundu of Angola. 

This is the language of Angola, a region that borders on 
the Atlantic between latitudes 8° and 10° south, having the 
Kongo country on the north and separated from Benguela by the 
Kuanza on the south, being a Portuguese colony with a popula- 
tion of about six hundred thousand souls. The Kimbundu, being 
a kind of Lingua Franca in all the Angola region, and of great 
service to the traveler, Avho can use it in his going far to the east, 
is one of the more important of the Bantu family on the west 
coast of the continent. It abounds, like the Zulu, in consonantal 
combinations, such as mh, mv, mp, mf, nd, ng, nz, but makes no 
use of clicks or gutturals. Each word and syllable ends in a 
vowel, which makes the pronunciation easy and musical. Though 
the Kimbundu is far removed, geographically, from the Isizulu, 
the distance between them being some two thousand miles, yet a 
good number of words are radically the same in the former as in 
the latter, thus : 



English. 


Mbundu. 

Sing. Plural. 

mama jimama 

nioka jinioka 

ku tunga 

ku lumata 

tatu 

tanu 


Zulu. 


mother 
snake 
to sew 
to bite 
three 
five 


Sing. Plural. 

umame omame 

inyoka izinyoki 

uku tunga 

uku luma 

tatu 

hlanu. 



In Zulu uku lamha means to hunger; in the Mbundu, to cook. 
IVIbundu nouns are divided into 10 classes on the same principle 
as in the Zulu and other Bantu languages, — according to the 
forms of their incipient elements or prefixes together with the 
way in which the plural is generally formed from the singular by 
some change in the prefix. In the first, or joersonal class the mu 
of the singular makes a in the plural; as, mutu, person, atu, per 



302 APPENDIX. 

sons. 3Iu of the second or impersonal class, makes mi in the 
plural; as, mulundu, mountain, plural, milundu. The singular 
hi makes the plural i; as, kima^ thing, ima^ things. JR,i makes 
ma, as, ritari, stone, m^atari, stones. ?7 makes ')nau; as, uliingu, 
canoe, maulungu, canoes. Ltt makes malu; as, lumbu, wall, 
malumhii, walls. Tu makes matu; as, tuhia, fire, matiihia, fires. 
ICii makes maku; as, kuria, drink, makiiria, drinks. Some 
nouns, which seem to have no singular prefix, make the plural in 
ji; as, inzo, house, jinzo, houses; nioka, snake, jinioka, snakes. 
Ka makes tu / as, kama, little thing, tiona, little things. These 
prefixes, ka and tu, are signs of the diminutive, as in the above 
examples; and so again, katubia, small fire, tumatuhia, small 
fires. 

Each class of nouns has its own fragmentary or genitive pro- 
noun, of a preformative character, which corresponds to the 
noun's prefix, one for the singular, and one for the plural, which, 
with the genitive particle a, denotes possession, or the relation of 
an attributive to a subject; thus, mutiie ua inutu, the head of a 
person, that is, a person's head; mitue ia atu, people's heads. 
Here, too, the adjective takes a prefix corresponding to the pre- 
fix of the noun with which it agrees; thus, tnutu uonene, great 
person; khna kionene, great thing; ima ionene, great things; 
ritari rionene, great stone. So, in respect to numerals; as, miitit 
iimoshi, one person, kima kimoshi, one thing; ima itatu, three 
things; matuhia tnatayiu, five fires. The Kimbundu uses ku 
where the Zulu uses tiku as the sign of the infinitive; as, ku 
zola, to love. The pronominal subject of the verb in the third 
person corresponds to the prefix of the noun for which it stands; 
thus, {niiitu, person,) ii zola, he (or she) loves; (atii, persons,) a 
zola, they love; (kima, thing,) ki zola, it loves. For the English: 
I love, thou lovest, he, etc., loves, we have 7igi zola, u zola, u, 
etc. zola; and for the corresponding plural we have tu zola, nu 
zola, a, i, or mi, etc. zola. 

Here, too, in the Kimbundu, ^VQ find a great variety of verbal 
forms which may be called species, some of them corresponding 
to what the Hebrew calls conjugations; thus, from zola we have 
zolela, love for; zolesa, cause to love; rizola, love self. From 
hang a, make, hangulula, make again; hanga-hanga, or hanga- 
jinga, make repeatedly, continuously. Here, too, as in some of 
the other Bantu languages we find the direct form changed to 
the reversive in many instances; as, jitika, tie, jituna, untie; so- 
keka, join, sokola, disjoin; fomeka, sheathe, fomona, unsheathe. 
So in the Setyuana, bofa, bind, bofolola, unbind; and in the 
Lunda, sa,la, do, salumma, undo. 

9. The Kongo Language, 

As spoken at San Salvador the capital of the old Kongo Empire, 
West Africa. 

That system of agreement between the noun and its subordi- 
nates, which prevails in all Bantu languages, and is sometimes 



APPENDIX. 303 

called the '^Alliterative Concord," seems less regular, marked, 
and manifest, or to be subject to more exceptions, in the Kongo, 
than in many of its cognates. Some of the original or older well- 
defined forms which many others have retained, have evidently 
given place to something more modern, or been dropped entirely, 
though the marks or proofs of their former place and use still 
remain. 

Dividing Kongo nouns into classes, as we have done in Zulu, 
according to their prefixes, we find some eight or ten, though 
counting plurals as a separate class, some make fifteen or eighteen. 
Personal nouns in mu make the plural in a; as, umuntii^ person, 
antu^ persons. Nouns in ^, e or di make the plural in ma; as, 
etadi, stone, matadi, stones; dinkando, plaintain, pi. mankando. 
Nouns in n are generally the same in both numbers; as, iigulu, 
pig, or pigs. Nouns in ki make the plural in i or yi; as, kmzu, 
pipe, plural, mzu or yinzu. Nouns in lu make tu in the plural ; 
as, lumbu, fence, plural, tumbu. Nouns itnpersonal in niu make 
oni in the plural ; as 7nunse, sugar-cane, plural, mhise. Nouns in 
u[iibu) have no plural, being the same in both numbers, or make 
the plural in 7na; as, ic?iiu, humanity; idiioigu, a ship, malungu^ 
ships. Some nouns in ku are the same in both numbers, or make 
the plural in ina; as, kide^ida, power or powers; kutii, ear, matu^ 
ears. 

The adjective follows the noun it qualifies and takes a prefix 
in accord with the prefix of the class to which the noun belongs; 
thus, the adjective ambote^ goo*!? qualifying the noun kinkutii, 
coat, takes the prefix ki, making kinkutu kiambote; so, also, 
^nankondo ^nainbote, good plantains; matadi niengi {ina-ingi^ 
many stones; matadi matatic, three stones. In forming the gen- 
itive the prefix of the limited noun together with the genitive 
particle a are prefixed to the limiting noun, as in Zulu; thus, disu 
diankombo, the eye of the goat. 

The Kongo has two forms of the personal pronoun; the one 
definitive, full or emphatic; as, mono, I, me; nge, thou, thee; 
and yandi, yau, wau, etc., he, him, she, etc.; plural, yeto, we; 
yeno, ye; yau, zau, etc., they, them. The other, or simjDle forms, 
and direct subject or object of the verb, are n, m, i or y, I, me; 
o, u, or w, thou, thee; o, u, we, ke, m.u, ki, etc., he, him, she, etc.; 
plural, tu, we, us; nu, ye, you; be, ba, a, ji, mi, etc., they, them. 
In the third person, these pronouns, whether full, emphatic, or 
simple, are essentially the same as the prefixes of the nouns for 
which they stand; thus, (kimbi, hawk,) ki tonda, it loves; {imbi, 
hawks,) i tonda, they love; (disa, corn,) di tonda, it loves; {mi7i- 
dele, white men,) 7ni tonda, they love. 

The passive voice of the Kongo verb is formed by inserting %ii 
before final a of the active form; as, tondwa,hQ loved. Final ya 
changes to yiv^a ; as, kaya, divide, kayiwa, be divided. The 
Kongo is rich in the variety of forms a verb may take to denote 
some modification of the meaning of the simple or radical form; 
thus, katula, take away, katuka, go away; baka, tear, bakama, 



304: APPENDIX. 

get torn; siiinha, buy, sumhila, buy for; siimhisa, cause to buy; 
smnhidula, buy again, or repeatedly; sutnhakana^ be buyable; 
(7m, eat, diakakana, be edible; tonda, love, tondana or tonda- 
jiana, love one another; kutonda^ love self; kanga, tie, kangida, 
untie; 5oA;a, load, sokala, unload; Mndika, lock, bindula, unlock. 
Kongo verbs originally used the prefix ku to denote the infini- 
tive, but this is now obsolete. The number of modes is four; 
the tenses are numerous, in some of the modes as many as ten. 

10. The 3Ipongive Language. 

The Mpongwe is spoken on both sides of the Gabun river, at 
Cape Lopez, and St. Catharine. The consonantal combinations, 
mh, mp, nd, nk, nj, nt, are common at the beginning of words. 
Monosyllabic words are rare. All inflections or changes, except 
such as come from laws of contraction or coalescence are inva- 
riably in the incipient syllable. Abstract verbal nouns are made 
from the verb by prefixing the letter i; as, noka, to lie, Inoka, a 
lie; jufa, steal, ijufa^ a theft. A noun of agency is made by 
prefixing o/ as, noka, to lie, onoka or onoki^ a liar. 

The number of the classes of nouns is small as compared with 
some of the other Bantu languages, though the principle of clas- 
sification is the same here as in the others. Personal nouns, as 
in o or om, make the plural in a; as, onotni, man, ano^ni, men; 
omanto, woman, anto, women. [N^ouns in o or om, impersonal, 
make the plural in i or my as, otondo, basket, itondo, baskets; 
olumhu, lip, inluonbu, lips. Nouns in i make the plural in a or 
anij' as, idambe, sheep, adarabe; invare., branch, plural, ampare 
{v being changed to mp). Nouns in ez make the plural in y; as, 
ezaynbalala, broom, plural, yambalala. Nouns in n or m make 
the plural m in, im, or sin; as, nyani, bird, plural, inyani; 
nyare, cow, plural, inyare or sinyare; mboni, goat, plural, im- 
boni. Some nouns have the same form in both numbers; as, 
anioigo, water. Nouns in e drop this prefix in the plural; as, 
erere, tree, rere, trees; egara, box; plural, gara. Some nouns in 
o or ovj make the plural in a or am; as, ogolu, leg; plural, agolu; 
ovmtayiga, ship, plural, amatanga. 

The prefix of the Mpongwe adjective varies according to the 
class of the noun with which it agrees, though the concord or 
agreement is not generally so manifest in this as in the Zulu and 
some of the other Bantu languages; thus, nyare mp)olii, a large 
cow; inyare simpolu, large cows; omamba omp^olu, a large snake; 
hnamba impolu, large snakes. The same holds true in respect to 
the pronoun; as, nyare yi re, the cow it is there; plural^ inyare 
si re, the cows they are there; idanibe ny ire, the sheep it is 
there. Mpongwe verbs have six modes and four tenses. The 
passive voice is formed from the active by changing final a into 
o; thus, mi tonda, I love; mi tondo, I am loved. The negative 
is distinguished from the affirmative by an intonation on the first 
or principal vowel of the verb. Mpongwe verbs have four or 



APPENDIX. 



305 



five species or conjugations; as, the radical Jcaniba^ speak; causa- 
tive, hamhiza^ cause to speak; relative, kamhona^ or kambina, 
speak to, for, or with some one; kamhaga, speak habitually; 
kamhagatnha^ speak at random. These simple species may be 
compounded; as, kamhizaga, cause to speak habitually; kambin- 
agay speak habitually with some one; kambagambaga^ speak at 
random habitually. Kendagenda signifies "to walk to and fro;" 
pornbiavombia^ " move backwards and forwards;" timbiarirnbia, 
"reel from side to side." The following are a few of the words 
found to be the same or similar in Zulu and Mpongwe. 



English. 


Zulu. 


Mpongwe. 


bird 


inyoni 


nyane 


sunlight 


ilanga 


ilanga 


tongue 


ulimi 


olemi 


many 


ningi 


yenge 


bad 


bi, mubi 


mbe 


three 


tatu 


taro 


four 


ne 


nai 


five 


hlanu 


tanu 


cook 


peka 


pika 


enter 


ngena 


jingina 


give 


3a 


pa 


see 


Dona 


pona 


send 


tuma 


tuma 


beat 


bula 
It TheDikele 


bola 



Is spoken by a people, who, numbering a hundred thousand or 
miore, live inland from the Mpongwe, on the sources of the Ga- 
bun, both sides of the equator. This language, differing much 
from the Mpongwe on several points, has nine classes of nouns, 
the classification being determined, as in other Bantu languages, 
from the way the plural is formed from the singular. The first 
class includes nouns beginning with a or J, which is changed to bi 
in forming the plural; as, avata, chest, plural, bivata; jeli, tree, 
plural, bieli. The second class begins with di and forms the plu- 
ral by changing this to ma; as, dikaki, stone, plural, makaki. 
The third class begins with ^, n, m or th, and forms the plural in 
???^7 as, lema, heart, plural, ndlema. The fourth class begins 
with g^ k^ m, n, />, s, or ^, and makes the plural in ba; as, gvmli^ 
ear, plural, bagioali. The fifth begins with I or th and changes 
this to tna; as, langaka, head, plural, mangaka. The seventh 
begins with ???, 7i, p^ s or t, and makes the plural by prefixing ma; 
as, mbute^ bottle, plural, onambtde. Nouns of the eighth class 
begin with vi and change this to la; as, vilatnbe, a trap, plural, 
lalambe. Nouns of the ninth class begin with bi and change this 
to ma; as, biivobi, cloth, plural, maioobi. 

A noun in the genitive takes before it the prefix of the limited 
noun; as, batyityi ba penje, beasts of the field; vinani vi thobe, a 
fowl of the air; lanani la tliobe^ fowls of the air. Possessive 
pronouns, numerals and adjectives take the prefix of the noun to 

20 



306 APPENDIX. 

whicli they belong; as, blvata bame, chests of me; i.e., my 
chests; dlna diame^ my name; malt mame, my canoes; 7nali ma- 
tani, five canoes; bivata binai^ four chests; bivata binen, great 
chests; dina dinen^ great name; bambia banen^ great dogs. 

Bakele verbs always begin with a consonant and end with a 
vowel, have five modes and four tenses. The Bakele verb differs 
from the Zulu and many others of the Bantu family in preferring 
to avoid the use of the passive voice even by resorting to an ex- 
tended circumlocution, if need be, while the Zulu rather delights 
in the passive. The Bakele passive is formed from the active by 
changing the final vowel into iej thus, loma, send, lomie, be sent. 
Bakele verbs have several species; as, dona, rejoice, doidshe, 
cause to rejoice; dinha, love, dinhlia, love each other; ngama, 
whip, iigamilia, whip one another. 

The following extracts from an article on "The Mutual Rela- 
tionship and Laws of the Bantu Languages," by the author of 
this Grammar, as published in " The Missionary Review " in 
June, 1891, afford a good comparative supplement to the fore- 
going pages. 

" The mutual relationship and laws, or kinds of resemblance 
and difference that prevail in the great family of Bantu langua- 
ges are seen, to some extent, in the goodly number of words that 
are found to be substantially the same in many of its members, 
though such words are often found in greatly differing forms. 
We take two words, or, rather, one word in its two numbers, 
umnntu, 'person,' abantu, 'persons or people,' as a good example 
of the unity in variety in some of the corresponding words in the 
cognate languages of which we speak. This word consists of 
two elements, one radical, the other preformative, which is also 
called 'prefix.' In Zulu the root is ntu; the prefix, singular, 
'umu, plural, aba. And, of all the numerous forms which this 
word may take, whether in root or prefix, doubtless the Zulu, as 
above, i. 6., umuntu, ahantu, are alike most original and complete. 
For these Zulu words we find the corresponding words, in the 
cognate languages, to be, on the south, in the Kafir, umntu, 
abantUy on the west, in the Sesutu, motii, batu^ in the Sethlapi 
and Setyuana, niothu, bat/iu. Going northward and eastward, 
and coming into the Delagoa region, we find, in the Southern 
Tekeza, miinu, banu or vanity in Northern Tekeza, amuno, vano; 
coming to the Tete and Sena on the Zambezi, we find tnunttu, 
vanttu; in the Quilimane, mwitu, antiiy in the Maravi, niuntu, 
want/iu. In the Makua, latitude 15° south, we find rnuttu, attu. 
In the Yao, on the eastern bank of Lake N'yasa, we have rrmndu^ 
vandu or wandu; in Kiswahili, latitude from 5° to 6° south, 
mtu, watu; then, in the Kinika, tmitu, atii,' in the Kikamba, 
mundu, audit; and in the Kisambala and Kipokomo, on the Po- 
komo, Dana or Tana river, near the equator, we have muntu, 
wantu. 



APPENDIX. 307 

" Passing now to the southwest of the Bantu field, and moving 
northward along the west coast of the continent, Ave find, in the 
Otyiherero or Damara language, onatndu^ ovandu; in the Sin- 
donga, the language of the Ovambo, tantu, oantu; in the Nano 
of Benguela, omiaio, onianoj in the Kimbundu or Angola, mutu, 
aiu; in the Kongo, onaintu^ oantii; in the Benga, as spoken on 
the Corisco Islands, north of the equator, 7noto, hato; and in the 
Dualla and Isubu or Cameroons language, motii, batu. 

" From what is already known of the many other Bantu lan- 
guages, we have every reason to believe that the jjoints of agree- 
ment and difference which we have now passed in review are a 
good specimen of what prevail among the scores that still remain 
to be reduced to order in the great inland region that stretches 
through the interior, from four or five degrees north of the equa- 
tor to the Orange river on the south. 

" Of how great advantage this relationship must be to the hosts 
of missionaries, whose great work it shall yet be to reduce the 
still unwritten multitude of these Bantu languages each to its 
own grammatically exact order, and translate the Scriptures into 
them, it is hardly possible to give any adequate idea. If the 
writer, while preparing to go abroad, could have had the means 
of getting even such a knowledge of these languages as may be 
gathered from this article, it would have been of more aid and 
saving of time to him than he can now tell." 



308 



APPENDIX. 









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APPENDIX. 



309 






o 






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5 

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M 






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a fl > rt a fl 



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^ 
s 

^ 



s ^ s s 

a ;::! s 13 ,a a s 



3 s .^ rt a a 






;:= S 42 



S S d ^ 

M I— I « P 



iral. 






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a 






a 


CD 


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rH 


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a 


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a 


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a 





•ss-Bxo 



CQ CO T^ lO «D t- GO 



;^ ;-! rH (D 


c« c3 O >- 


3 '3 02 S3 






• Ph Ph O ^ 


C3 c« S ^ 


«3 rH 2 OO 


i oc 2^bX) 


^5^? 


oj o >^bD 




S OI ^ 


S O '>f3 «« 


-^^ s 


'^ <=> ^ 


i«ss 


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§ric 


G oS -^ 




ses of 
articu 
nay b 
mmon 


oD ;-^ " o 


^ C3 X ^ 


:^i^ 


bJDp 


1 ei 

foi 

ven 

ula 


thai 
one 

a gi 
reg 


more 
than 
and 
most 


^t'-£^ 


> O ^r^ 


js|r 


S S § 's 


e:3 ^, S ^ 


^2 o-^ 


c ;:^'^ c 


ed la 
one 
and 

ove i 


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^ ^^-^^ 


o o 2-i 


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2i^ 2 


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<^ <^ -^^ 


l^niB 


O C 00 S C 


»5j5S 


C O O r^ 



Sect. III. 

2. A Comparative ToMe of some of the principal forms of the 

Personal Pronouns in several of the Bantu Languages. 







Full or 


Emphatic. 


Simple or Verbal. 


I 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


^ ( 


1 


mina 


tina 


ngi 


si 


'^i 


2 


wena 


nma 


u, ku 


m 


N j 


3 


yena 


bona 


u, a, e, m 


ba, be 


tH 




etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


II 

C5* 


1 


mono 


yeto 


i, n, m 


tu, tw 


2 


ngeye 


yeno 


o, u, w 


nu, nw 


8 


yandi 


yau 


o, u, ke, e 


be, e, ba 




etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


tj 


1 


eme 


etu 


ngi 


tu 


2 


eye 


enu 


u, ku 


mu, nu 


^1 

of 


3 


muene 


ene 


u, a, mu 


a 




etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


1] 


1 


ame 


etu 


ndi 


tu 


2 


ove 


ene 


o 


vu 


3 


eye 


ovo 


o 


va 


-* 




etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


i\ 


1 


oami 


ete 


ndyi, mbi 


tu 




2 


ove 


ene 


u, ku 


mu 


b 


oye, eye 


owo, ovo 


u, mu 


ve 




etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


d 


1 


nna 


rona, tshona 


ke, n 


re, rea 


;3 \ 


2 


wena 


lona 


0, go 


lo, loa 


H ( 


8 


ene 


bone 


o, a 


bo, baa 


«3 




etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


I! 


1 


une 


uwe 


ni, n 


tu 


2 


ugwe 


umwe 


u, ku 


m, mu 


8 


a jo 


awo 


u, a m(u) 


wa, a 


i> 




etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 




1 


nene 


isu 


ni, n 


tu 


A 


2 


wewe 


imue 


u, ku 


mu 


00* 


8 


uwe 


awo 


u, a, mu 


wa 




etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


C3 


1 


ninye 


nithi 


ni, n 


tu, tw 


2 


niwe 


myui 


u, ku 


mu, m 


8 


miya 


acho, (atyo) 


u, ya, mu 


ma, a 


as 




etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


^ ( 


1 


mimi 


sisi 


ni, n 


tu, tw 


rn ( 


2 


wewe 


nyinyi 


u. ku 


mu, wa 


8 


yeye 


wao 


u, a, m(u) 


we 


o 




etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 















Remarks. — Most of the simple or verbal forms may be used either as 
the direct subject or the direct object of its verb. In a few cases one 
form is used as the subject, another as the object; as in the second per- 
son singular of the Zulu, where u signifies thou, and ku, tliee. The 
pronouns of the third person belong to the first class of nouns. The 
pronouns for the other classes, as second, third, fourth, etc., varying, as 
they do, according to the prefix of the class for which they stand, are 
not given in the foregoing table. 



APPENDIX. 



311 



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r^ ,-» >— I 



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a 


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a 


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m 
O 

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1 


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a 

03 


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f-l 


1 


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a 


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03 


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s 


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J 


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a 


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15 


fl 


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lO 


CO 


o 


■I— 1 



Sect. III. 

J^. JRemarJcs on the comparison of Adjectives in some of the 
Bantu Languages. 

a. For comparison of Zulu adjectives, see §§127, 138, 417-426. 

h. In the Mpongwe, adjectives are compared by circumlocu- 
tion, as by the aid of words signifying " excel " or *' more than ; " 
thus, swaki yam viagamc swaki ya, my knife excels your knife. 
The superlative is expressed by setting one against all others; as, 
swaki yam viaganii isioaki sodu, my knife excels all knives, is the 
best of all. Comparison is expressed also by emphasis, and the 
stronger the emphasis on the adjective the greater the degree. 

c. The Bihe has several ways of indicating comparison; some- 
times by setting objects against each other and using the adjec- 
tive with one and not the others; sometimes by affirming the 
quality of one and denying it of the others. An intensive super- 
lative is made sometimes by repeating the adjective, and some- 
times by the use of an adverb with the adjective. 

d. Tyuana adjectives are sometimes compared by means of an 
adverb ; sometimes by means of the verb feta, pass, or surpass, or 
by the verb gaisa, excel. Repetition is sometimes used to denote 
intensity. 

e. In the Yao, objects may be compared by the use of the verb 
punda, excel, or by the use of the simple adjective followed by 
na, " with," i. e. one thing is good, or great, with another, mean- 
ing it is better, or larger. The superlative may be expressed by 
the simple adjective, so used as to imply intensity; or the adverb 
mnope, signifying "very," "exceedingly," may be used with the 
adjective. 

f The .N'yamwezi compares the adjective by use of kuUko, 
"there is there," seeming to signify that if this and that were put 
together, or compared, this would be the larger, or better, etc. 

g. The Kamha denotes comparison by simply stating the qual- 
ities of two objects, as this is good, that is bad; or by the use of 
the verb kila^ surpass. The superlative is expressed by the 
simple use of the adjective; or by the use of kila (surpass) and 
ondi, (all), i. e., a thing which surpasses all is the largest, best, or 
worst of all. 

h. In Swahili comparison is represented sometimes by kuliko, 
in comparison with, or in presence of, or before, i. e. this is good 
as compared with that, or is better than that; sometimes by zayidi 
ya, more than; or by punde^ a little more; sometimes by the 
verb pita., pass, or surpass; sometimes by ku zidi, to increase; 
ku pimgua, to diminish. The superlative may be denoted by the 
simple adjective, in an absolute sense. 



APPENDIX 31 3 

i. BaJcele adjectives are compared by bringing two or more 
objects together and affirming the quality of one, and not of the 
other or others, which signifies that the one is the older, larger, 
better, or eldest, largest, best, as compared with the other or 
others. Or some word signifying " surpass " or " excel " may be 
used. The ^superlative is expressed by repeating the adjective 
and having this followed by the preposition na " with," and the 
thing compared ; as this is'great great with those. 



21 



